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1.
《Ethology and sociobiology》1992,13(5-6):463-494
In most mammals, and in the majority of traditional human societies for which data exist, status, power, or resource control correlates with lifetime reproductive success; male and female patterns differ. Because such correlations are often argued to have disappeared in human societies during the demographic transition of the nineteenth century, we analyzed wealth and lifetime reproductive success in a nineteenth-century Swedish population in four economically diverse parishes, subsuming geographic and temporal variation. Children of both sexes born to poorer parents were more likely than richer children to die or emigrate before reaching maturity. Poorer men, and women whose fathers were poorer, were less likely to marry in the parish than others, largely as a result of differential mortality and migration. Of all adults of both sexes who remained in their home parish and thus generated complete lifetime records, richer individuals had greater lifetime fertility and more children alive at age ten, than others. The age-specific fertility of richer women rises slightly sooner, and reaches a higher peak, than that of poorer women. These patterns persisted throughout the period of the sample (1824–1896). Thus, wealth appears, even during the demographic transition in an egalitarian society, to have influenced lifetime reproductive success positively. 相似文献
2.
Bobbi S. Low 《Evolutionary anthropology》1993,1(5):177-187
The interests of evolutionary anthropologists, behavioral ecologists, and demographers converge on the ecology of human fertility. Ecological conditions influence the optimum pattern of maternal effort. Patterns of abortion, neglect, and infanticide vary with mothers' ability to invest in their children and children's ability to use that investment. As in most other mammals, the ecology of human fertility varies between the sexes: status and resource control are important for males, whereas reproductive value is crucial for females. In pre-industrial societies, and even in monogamous societies in demographic transition, wealthy men had more children than did poorer men. This correlation, often assumed to have disappeared, persists today, with richer men still having more sexual access than others. Sex differences in the ecology of fertility mean that sex of the offspring, as well as birth order, influences parental investment. Because individual fertility varies with environment, it is not surprising that “natural” (uncontrolled) fertility varies across societies or that demographic transitions proceed locally, with occasional reverses, as individuals strive to maximize their lifetime reproductive success in changing, competitive, conditions. 相似文献
3.
Alice L. Clarke 《Human nature (Hawthorne, N.Y.)》1993,4(2):109-135
In a recent study, female dispersal in nineteenth-century Sweden has been found to correlate negatively with access to resources:
women with limited access to local resources tended to migrate more frequently. In this paper I review the literature to explore
whether this observed correlation was derived from a relationship in which a woman’s limited access to resources worsened
her position in the marriage market and led to migration, as a strategy to improve resources and this position. Many studies
within a variety of disciplines indicate that a woman’s propensity to disperse from her parish of birth variedinversely with her propensity to inherit resources. My review of the literature suggests that the less likely a woman was to inherit
resources, the lower her probability of marriage, the later her expected age at marriage, and the earlier she left home, presumably
to improve her resource base for marriage.
This work was funded in part by the Population and Environment Dynamics Program and by the Evolution and Human Behavior Program,
University of Michigan.
Alice L. Clarke is a doctoral candidate in the School of Natural Resources and Environment, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
Her dissertation research examines the ecology of human dispersal in nineteenth-century Sweden. Her broader research interests
include the ecological basis of human demography and resource use. 相似文献
4.
Low birth rates in developed societies reflect women’s difficulties in combining work and motherhood. While demographic research
has focused on the role of formal childcare in easing this dilemma, evolutionary theory points to the importance of kin. The
cooperative breeding hypothesis states that the wider kin group has facilitated women’s reproduction during our evolutionary
history. This mechanism has been demonstrated in pre-industrial societies, but there is no direct evidence of beneficial effects
of kin’s support on parents’ reproduction in modern societies. Using three-generation longitudinal data anchored in a sample
of grandparents aged 55 and over in 1992 in the Netherlands, we show that childcare support from grandparents increases the
probability that parents have additional children in the next 8 to 10 years. Grandparental childcare provided to a nephew
or niece of childless children did not significantly increase the probability that those children started a family. These
results suggest that childcare support by grandparents can enhance their children’s reproductive success in modern societies
and is an important factor in people’s fertility decisions, along with the availability of formal childcare. 相似文献
5.
《Ethology and sociobiology》1993,14(6):391-396
A study of female reproductive histories from nineteenth-century Utah shows that although women who married polygynously had fewer children, their number of grandchildren was equal to that of women who married monogamously. Women who chose to marry high-status men polygynously traded decreased fertility for enhanced reproductive performance of offspring. High status can be associated with low fertility and yet still be consistent with fitness optimization. These results suggest how female reproductive decisions influence social structure and challenge previous assumptions concerning proximate measures of fitness. 相似文献
6.
Evolutionary theory predicts that senescence, a decline in survival rates with age, is the consequence of stronger selection on alleles that affect fertility or mortality earlier rather than later in life. Hamilton quantified this argument by showing that a rare mutation reducing survival is opposed by a selective force that declines with age over reproductive life. He used a female-only demographic model, predicting that female menopause at age ca. 50 yrs should be followed by a sharp increase in mortality, a "wall of death." Human lives obviously do not display such a wall. Explanations of the evolution of lifespan beyond the age of female menopause have proven difficult to describe as explicit genetic models. Here we argue that the inclusion of males and mating patterns extends Hamilton's theory and predicts the pattern of human senescence. We analyze a general two-sex model to show that selection favors survival for as long as men reproduce. Male fertility can only result from matings with fertile females, and we present a range of data showing that males much older than 50 yrs have substantial realized fertility through matings with younger females, a pattern that was likely typical among early humans. Thus old-age male fertility provides a selective force against autosomal deleterious mutations at ages far past female menopause with no sharp upper age limit, eliminating the wall of death. Our findings illustrate the evolutionary importance of males and mating preferences, and show that one-sex demographic models are insufficient to describe the forces that shape human senescence. 相似文献
7.
Lee Cronk 《Human nature (Hawthorne, N.Y.)》1991,2(4):387-417
Female-biased parental investment is unusual but not unknown in human societies. Relevant explanatory models include Fisher’s
principle, the Trivers-Willard model, local mate and resource competition and enhancement, and economic rational actor models.
Possible evidence of female-biased parental investment includes sex ratios, mortality rates, parents’ stated preferences for
offspring of one sex, and direct and indirect measurements of actual parental behavior. Possible examples of female-biased
parental investment include the Mukogodo of Kenya, the Ifalukese of Micronesia, the Cheyenne of North America, the Herero
of southern Africa, the Kanjar of south Asia, the Mundugumor of New Guinea, contemporary North America, and historical Germany,
Portugal, and the United States.
Lee Cronk is Assistant Professor of Anthropology at Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas. His main research interests
are in human behavioral ecology, reproductive strategies, and East African hunter-gatherers and pastoralists. 相似文献
8.
James L. Boone 《Human nature (Hawthorne, N.Y.)》1998,9(1):1-21
Conspicuous consumption associated with status reinforcement behavior can be explained in terms of costly signaling, or strategic
handicap theory, first articulated by Zahavi and later formalized by Grafen. A theory is introduced which suggests that the
evolutionary raison d’être of status reinforcement behavior lies not only in its effects on lifetime reproductive success,
but in its positive effects on the probability of survival through infrequent, unpredictable demographic bottlenecks. Under
some circumstances, such “wasteful” displays may take the form of displays of altruistic behavior and generosity on the part
of high status individuals, in that is signals the ability to bear the short-term costs of being generous or “cooperative,”
while at the same time reinforcing the long-term benefits of higher status.
James L. Boone is an associate professor in the Department of Anthropology at the University of New Mexico, where he carries
out research in behavioral ecology and the archaeology of complex societies. His current interests are in the evolution of
social status reinforcement behavior and variation in patterns of conspicuous consumption in human history. 相似文献
9.
Kermyt G. Anderson 《Human nature (Hawthorne, N.Y.)》2000,11(4):307-333
This paper presents an analysis of the characteristics of men who become stepfathers, and their subsequent fertility patterns
and lifetime reproductive success. Because women who already have children are ranked lower in the marriage market than women
without children, men who marry women with children (e.g., stepfathers) are likely to have lower rankings in the marriage
market as well. Using retrospective fertility and marital histories from the Panel Study of Income Dynamics (PSID), I show
that men who become stepfathers have lower levels of education, less income, and are more likely to have been divorced before
and to already have children, all characteristics that lower their rankings in the marriage market. Men with one or two stepchildren
are just as likely to have children within a marriage as non-stepfathers, although men with three stepchildren show decreased
fertility. Among men age 45 and older, stepfathers have lower lifetime fertility than non-stepfathers, although the difference
disappears when men’s age at first marriage is controlled for. Additionally, stepfathers have significantly higher fertility
than men who never marry. The results suggest that some men become stepfathers to procure mates and fertility benefits that
they would otherwise have been unlikely to obtain; for these men, raising other men’s children serves as a form of mating
effort.
Preliminary versions of this paper were presented at the Evolution and Human Adaptation Program at the University of Michigan,
and the Human Behavior and Evolution Society’s annual meeting at Amherst.
Kermyt G. Anderson received his Ph.D. in anthropology from the University of New Mexico in 1999. He is currently a Mellon
Postdoctoral Research Fellow at the Population Studies Center of the Institute for Social Research at the University of Michigan.
His current research examines the relationship between family structure, parental investment, and children’s educational and
employment outcomes in South Africa. 相似文献
10.
Daniel Pérusse 《Human nature (Hawthorne, N.Y.)》1994,5(3):255-278
Most research on mate choice in modern societies is based on data that may or may not reflect actual mating behavior (e.g.,
stated preferences, personal advertisements). In the present study, real-life matings were reported by a large representative
sample of men and women (N = 1,133). These data were used to test an evolutionary model in which mate choice is hypothesized to depend on resources
potentially contributed to reproduction by each sex. Consistent with the model, it was found that (a) men (but not women) of higher social status acquire more mating partners, suggesting that male status is an important criterion
in female choice; (b) women’s (but not men’s) number of partners decreases linearly with age, suggesting that female reproductive potential is
an important criterion in male choice; and (c) women (but not men) display a significant relationship between marital dissolution and promiscuity, suggesting that female
sexual exclusivity is an important criterion in male choice. These results are discussed in relation to understanding mate
choice mechanisms from behavioral data.
Daniel Pérusse is an assistant professor in the Department of Anthropology at the Université de Montréal. His research interests
include the evolutionary biology of human social and reproductive behavior, sexual selection theory, and biocultural evolution.
His current research bears on human socialization processes and psychosocial development from an evolutionary and behavior-genetic
perspective. Recent publications include “Cultural and Reproductive Success in Industrial Societies: Testing the Relationship
at the Proximate and Ultimate Levels” (Behavioral and Brain Sciences 16(2):267–322, 1993) and “Human Parental Behavior: Evidence for Genetic Influence and Potential Implications for Gene-Culture
Theory” with M. C. Neale, A. Heath, and L. J. Eaves (Behavior Genetics, in press). 相似文献
11.
Human menopause is an unsolved evolutionary puzzle, and relationships among the factors that produced it remain understood poorly. Classic theory, involving a one-sex (female) model of human demography, suggests that genes imparting deleterious effects on post-reproductive survival will accumulate. Thus, a ‘death barrier’ should emerge beyond the maximum age for female reproduction. Under this scenario, few women would experience menopause (decreased fertility with continued survival) because few would survive much longer than they reproduced. However, no death barrier is observed in human populations. Subsequent theoretical research has shown that two-sex models, including male fertility at older ages, avoid the death barrier. Here we use a stochastic, two-sex computational model implemented by computer simulation to show how male mating preference for younger females could lead to the accumulation of mutations deleterious to female fertility and thus produce a menopausal period. Our model requires neither the initial assumption of a decline in older female fertility nor the effects of inclusive fitness through which older, non-reproducing women assist in the reproductive efforts of younger women. Our model helps to explain why such effects, observed in many societies, may be insufficient factors in elucidating the origin of menopause. 相似文献
12.
Masahito Morita 《Population Ecology》2018,60(1-2):143-154
Recently, statistical analyses of demographic datasets have come to play an important role for studies into the evolution of human life history. In the first part of this paper, I highlight fertility decline, an evolutionarily paradoxical phenomenon in terms of fitness maximization. Then, I conduct a literature review regarding the effects of socioeconomic status on the number of offspring, especially in modern developed, (post-)industrial, and low-fertility societies. Although a non-positive relationship between them has often been recognized as a general feature of fertility decline, there actually exists a great deal of variation. Based on the review, I discuss the association between socioeconomic success and reproductive success, and tackle an evolutionary question as to why people seek higher socioeconomic success that would not directly lead to higher reproductive success. It has been suggested that, in modern competitive environments, parents should set a higher value on their investment in children, and aim to have a smaller number of high-quality children. Also, parents would maintain higher socioeconomic status for themselves so as to provide high-levels of investment in their children. In the second part, I broadly consider seemingly evolutionarily (mal)adaptive outcomes besides fertility decline, including child abuse, menopause, and suicide. The integration of the major three approaches to human behavioral and psychological research (behavioral ecology, evolutionary psychology, and cultural evolution) could lead to a deeper understanding. I provide a model for the integrated approach. Rich empirical evidence accumulated in demographic studies, especially longitudinal and cross-cultural resources, can assist to develop a theoretical framework. 相似文献
13.
Life Course Perspectives on Women's Autonomy and Health Outcomes 总被引:1,自引:0,他引:1
MONICA DAS GUPTA 《American anthropologist》1995,97(3):481-491
Gender inequality leads to negative demographic consequences in many societies. Patterns of household formation and inheritance strongly influence these consequences. Peasant societies of preindustrial northern Europe emphasized the conjugal bond, while intergenerational bonds were weak. The reverse is true in contemporary northern India. As a result, greater potential exists there for marginalizing women. The convergence of low autonomy due to youth as well as gender means that women's autonomy is at its lowest point during the peak of childbearing years. This has considerable implications for demographic and health outcomes in terms of poorer child survival, slower fertility decline, and poorer reproductive health. 相似文献
14.
Bobbi S. Low 《Human nature (Hawthorne, N.Y.)》1996,7(4):353-379
A common exhortation by conservationists suggests that we can solve ecological problems by returning to the attitudes of traditional
societies: reverence for resources, and willingness to assume short-term individual costs for long-term, group-beneficial
sustainable management. This paper uses the 186-society Standard Cross-Cultural Sample to examine resource attitudes and practices.
Two main findings emerge: (1) resource practices are ecologically driven and do not appear to correlate with attitude (including
sacred prohibition) and (2) the low ecological impact of many traditional societies results not from conscious conservation
efforts, but from various combinations of low population density, inefficient extraction technology, and lack of profitable
markets for extracted resources.
Professor Emilio Moran, Director of the Anthropological Center for Training and Research on Global Environmental Change, Indiana
University, kindly shared Marcos Terena’s words.
Bobbi Low is Professor of Resource Ecology, School of Natural Resources and Environment, University of Michigan. Her research
interests include sex differences in resource use, patterns in resource use and reproduction/family formation, and demographic
transition patterns. 相似文献
15.
In the present study, we evaluated whether reproductive condition affects female reproductive behaviour in the induced ovulator
Ctenomys talarum. We also explored the effect of the interaction with a male on the reproductive condition of females. To evaluate this, we
arranged mating trials and evaluated female reproductive behaviour. Reproductive status of females was evaluated using a combined
approach of vaginal smears, urinary progesterone and oestradiol, and ovarian histology. Behaviours denoting attraction (‘male
sniff’ and ‘mount attempts’) and mutual courtship behaviours (‘spin’ and copula) were correlated with vaginal cytology before
and oestradiol and progesterone levels in urine 12 h after male–female encounter. After 24 h of the interaction, oestradiol
levels and vaginal epithelization increased while progesterone levels decreased in soliciting females. C. talarum females’ reproductive behaviour was related to its physiological reproductive state and vaginal cytology. The kind of male
interaction, whether couples copulated or remained indifferent affected the later status of females. Females are induced ovulators
by mating but male presence and interaction also affected other components of their reproductive physiology such as ovarian
hormones and vaginal cytology. 相似文献
16.
Hillard S. Kaplan Jane B. Lancaster Sara E. Johnson John A. Bock 《Human nature (Hawthorne, N.Y.)》1995,6(4):325-360
Our objective is to test an optimality model of human fertility that specifies the behavioral requirements for fitness maximization
in order (a) to determine whether current behavior does maximize fitness and, if not, (b) to use the specific nature of the behavioral deviations from fitness maximization towards the development of models of evolved
proximate mechanisms that may have maximized fitness in the past but lead to deviations under present conditions. To test
the model we use data from a representative sample of 7,107 men living in Albuquerque, New Mexico, between 1990 and 1993.
The model we test proposes that low fertility in modern settings maximizes number of grandchildren as a result of a trade-off
between parental fertility and next generation fertility. Results do not show the optimization, although the data do reveal
a trade-off between parental fertility and offspring education and income.
We propose that two characteristics of modern economies have led to a period of sustained fertility reduction and to a corresponding
lack of association between income and fertility. The first is the direct link between costs of investment and wage rates
due to the forces of supply and demand for labor in competitive economies. The second is the increasing emphasis on cumulative
knowledge, skills, and technologies in the production of resources. Together they produce historically novel conditions. These
two features of modern economies may interact with evolved psychological and physiological mechanisms governing fertility
and parental investment to produce behavior that maximizes the economic productivity of lineages at the expense of fitness.
If cognitive processes evolved to track diminishing returns to parental investment and if physiological processes evolved
to regulate fertility in response to nutritional state and patterns of breast feeding, we might expect non-adaptive responses
when returns from parental investment do not diminish until extremely high levels are reached. With high economic payoffs
from parental investment, people have begun to exercise cognitive regulation of fertility through contraception and family
planning practices. Those cognitive processes maynot have evolved to handle fitness trade-offs between fertility and parental investment.
A preliminary presentation of this data was published in R. I. M. Dunbar, ed.,Human Reproduction Decisions: Biological and Social Perspectives. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1995. Support for the research project, “Male Fertility and Parenting in New Mexico,” began
with two seed grants from the University of New Mexico’s Biomedical Research Grants Program, 1988 and 1989, and one from the
University of New Mexico Research Allocations Committee, 1988. Further seed money as well as interim funding came from the
William T. Grant Foundation (#89130589 and #91130501). The major support for the project came from the National Science Foundation
from 1990 to 1993 (#BNS-9011723 and #DBS-911552). Both National Science Foundation grants included Research Experience for
Undergraduates supplements.
Hillard S. Kaplan is an Associate Professor of Anthropology at the University of New Mexico. His earlier research and publications
focused on food sharing, time allocation, parental investment, and reproductive strategies among Ache hunter-gatherers in
Paraguay, Machiguenga and Piro forager-horticulturalists in Peru, and villagers of several ethnicities in Botswana. New research
and theory concern fertility, parental investment, and mating strategies in developed and developing nations. This research
formulates a new theory of reproductive decision-making and the demographic transition, integrating human capital and parental
investment theory in a synthesis of economic and evolutionary approaches.
Jane B. Lancaster is a Professor of Anthropology at the University of New Mexico. Her research and publications are on human
reproductive biology and behavior, especially human parental investment; women’s reproductive biology of pregnancy, lactation,
and child-spacing; and male fertility and investment in children. Current research with Hillard S. Kaplan is on male life
history strategies among a large sample of men in New Mexico. She has coedited three books on human parental investment:School-Age Pregnancy and Parenthood (with B. Hamburg),Parenting across the Life Span (with J. Altmann, A. Rossi, and L. Sherrod), andOffspring Abuse and Neglect (with R. Gelles). She is scientific editor of a quarterly journal,Human Nature: An Interdisciplinary, Biosocial Perspective published by Aldine de Gruyter. She is also a council member of the newly formed Human Behavior and Evolution Society.
John A. Bock is Andrew W. Mellon Post-Doctoral Fellow in Epidemiology and Population Health at the National Centre for Epidemiology
and Population Health, The Australian National University. His research focuses on the allocation of parental investment and
the determinants of children’s activities, integrating aspects of economic and evolutionary theory. He has ongoing field research
with Bantu and Bushmen agro-pastoralists and forager-horticulturalists in the Okavango Delta, Botswana. He is also collaborating
with Lancaster and Kaplan on the determinants of progeny distribution and homosexuality among New Mexican men.
Sara E. Johnson is a Ph.D. candidate at the University of New Mexico. Her major research trajectory focuses on trade-offs
in life history characters. Her research experience includes participation in a study of variation in growth and development
among children in a multi-ethnic community in the Okavango Delta, Botswana, in addition to her dissertation work on individual
variation in growth and mortality among juvenile baboons. She is collaborating with Lancaster and Kaplan on the association
between survival and fertility among Albuquerque men. 相似文献
17.
John Bongaarts 《Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological sciences》2009,364(1532):2985-2990
The world and most regions and countries are experiencing unprecedentedly rapid demographic change. The most obvious example of this change is the huge expansion of human numbers: four billion have been added since 1950. Projections for the next half century expect a highly divergent world, with stagnation or potential decline in parts of the developed world and continued rapid growth in the least developed regions. Other demographic processes are also undergoing extraordinary change: women''s fertility has dropped rapidly and life expectancy has risen to new highs. Past trends in fertility and mortality have led to very young populations in high fertility countries in the developing world and to increasingly older populations in the developed world. Contemporary societies are now at very different stages of their demographic transitions. This paper summarizes key trends in population size, fertility and mortality, and age structures during these transitions. The focus is on the century from 1950 to 2050, which covers the period of most rapid global demographic transformation. 相似文献
18.
Most accounts of human life history propose that women have short reproductive spans relative to their adult lifespans, while men not only remain fertile but carry on reproducing until late life. Here we argue that studies have overlooked evidence for variation in male reproductive ageing across human populations. We apply a Bayesian approach to census data from Agta hunter-gatherers and Gambian farmers to show that long post-reproductive lifespans characterise not only women but also males in some traditional human populations. We calculate three indices of reproductive ageing in men (oldest age at reproduction, male late-life reproduction, and post-reproductive representation) and identify a continuum of male reproductive longevity across eight traditional societies ranging from !Kung, Hadza and Agta hunter-gatherers exhibiting low levels of polygyny, early age at last reproduction and long post-reproductive lifespans, to male Gambian agriculturalists and Turkana pastoralists showing higher levels of polygyny, late-life reproduction and shorter post-reproductive lifespans. We conclude that the uniquely human detachment between rates of somatic senescence and reproductive decline, and the existence of post-reproductive lifespans, are features of both male and female life histories, and therefore not exclusive consequences of menopause. 相似文献
19.
Middle Eastern masculinities in the age of new reproductive technologies: male infertility and stigma in Egypt and Lebanon 总被引:4,自引:0,他引:4
Inhorn MC 《Medical anthropology quarterly》2004,18(2):162-182
Worldwide, male infertility contributes to more than half of all cases of childlessness; yet, it is a reproductive health problem that is poorly studied and understood. This article examines the problem of male infertility in two Middle Eastern locales, Cairo, Egypt, and Beirut, Lebanon, where men may be at increased risk of male infertility because of environmental and behavioral factors. It is argued that male infertility may be particularly problematic for Middle Eastern men in their pronatalist societies; there, both virility and fertility are typically tied to manhood. Thus, male infertility is a potentially emasculating condition, surrounded by secrecy and stigma. Furthermore, the new reproductive technology called intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI), designed specifically to overcome male infertility, may paradoxically create additional layers of stigma and secrecy, due to the complex moral and marital dilemmas associated with Islamic restrictions on third-party donation of gametes. 相似文献
20.
Mary K. Shenk Hillard S. Kaplan Paul L. Hooper 《Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological sciences》2016,371(1692)
The role that social status plays in small-scale societies suggests that status may be important for understanding the evolution of human fertility decisions, and for understanding how such decisions play out in modern contexts. This paper explores whether modelling competition for status—in the sense of relative rank within a society—can help shed light on fertility decline and the demographic transition. We develop a model of how levels of inequality and status competition affect optimal investment by parents in the embodied capital (health, strength, and skills) and social status of offspring, focusing on feedbacks between individual decisions and socio-ecological conditions. We find that conditions similar to those in demographic transition societies yield increased investment in both embodied capital and social status, generating substantial decreases in fertility, particularly under conditions of high inequality and intense status competition. We suggest that a complete explanation for both fertility variation in small-scale societies and modern fertility decline will take into account the effects of status competition and inequality. 相似文献