Metformin promotes isolated rat liver mitochondria impairment

Metformin, a drug widely used in the treatment of type 2 diabetes, has recently received attention due to the new and contrasting findings regarding its effects on mitochondrial function. In the present study, we evaluated the effect of metformin in isolated rat liver mitochondria status. We observed that metformin concentrations ≥8 mM induce an impairment of the respiratory chain characterized by a decrease in RCR and state 3 respiration. However, only metformin concentrations ≥10 mM affect the oxidative phosphorylation system by decreasing the mitochondrial transmembrane potential and increasing the repolarization lag phase. Moreover, our results show that metformin does not prevent H₂O₂ production, neither protects against lipid peroxidation induced by the pro-oxidant pair ADP/Fe²⁺. In addition, we observed that metformin exacerbates Ca²⁺-induced permeability transition pore opening by decreasing the capacity of mitochondria to accumulate Ca²⁺ and increasing the oxidation of thiol groups. Taken together, our results show that metformin can promote liver mitochondria injury predisposing to cell death. Cristina Carvalho and Sónia Correia contributed equally to this work.     

Trehalose loading through the mitochondrial permeability transition pore enhances desiccation tolerance in rat liver mitochondria

Trehalose has extensively been used to improve the desiccation tolerance of mammalian cells. To test whether trehalose improves desiccation tolerance of mammalian mitochondria, we introduced trehalose into the matrix of isolated rat liver mitochondria by reversibly permeabilizing the inner membrane using the mitochondrial permeability transition pore (MPTP). Measurement of the trehalose concentration inside mitochondria using high performance liquid chromatography showed that the sugar permeated rapidly into the matrix upon opening the MPTP. The concentration of intra-matrix trehalose reached 0.29 mmol/mg protein (∼190 mM) in 5 min. Mitochondria, with and without trehalose loaded into the matrix, were desiccated in a buffer containing 0.25 M trehalose by diffusive drying. After re-hydration, the inner membrane integrity was assessed by measurement of mitochondrial membrane potential with the fluorescent probe JC-1. The results showed that following drying to similar water contents, the mitochondria loaded with trehalose had significantly higher inner membrane integrity than those without trehalose loading. These findings suggest the presence of trehalose in the mitochondrial matrix affords improved desiccation tolerance to the isolated mitochondria.     

异氟烷预处理对大鼠肝缺血再灌注时脑线粒体钙及线粒体转运通道的影响

目的：通过观察在体大鼠肝部分缺血再灌注损伤后脑线粒体游离钙、线粒体转运通道（ mitochondrial permeability transition pore ,MPTP）及外周血中S-100β蛋白含量的变化,明确异氟烷预处理对大鼠肝部分缺血再灌注时脑损伤是否具有保护作用及可能的机制。方法 SD大鼠75只随机分成假手术组（ S组）;缺血再灌注组（ I/R组）：肝缺血60 min,再灌注120 min;异氟烷预处理组（ ISO组）：肝I/R前60 min ISO预处理30 min,后用空气洗脱30 min：CsA＋ISO组,CsA50 mg/kg静脉内注射,30 min后同ISO组;CsA组,I/R前30 min CsA50 mg/kg静脉内注射。再灌注24 h迅速断头取前脑,分离线粒体进行线粒体游离钙、MPTP含量检测,各组分别于缺血前及再灌注120 min后抽取静脉血采用双抗体夹心-ELAISA 法测定 S-100β蛋白含量。结果 I/R组（287.32±26.17）线粒体游离Ca2＋浓度明显增加,高于S组（198.54±21.02）和ISO组（209.74±29.49）（P ＜0.05）;CsA＋ISO（267.31±37.52）明显高于ISO组（ P ＜0.05）;CsA（288.63±23.15）组与I/R组间比较差异无显著意义（ P ＜0.05）;I/R组（1.73±0.24）的ΔS与S组（2.36±0.35）和ISO 组（2.11±0.32）相比明显减少（P ＜0.05）,既MPTP大量开放,而后两组的差异无统计学意义（P ＜0.05）;I/R组与CsA＋ISO组（1.72±0.34）和CsA组（1.77±0.35）△S之间差异无统计学意义（P ＜0.05）;CsA＋ISO组的ΔS值与ISO组相比明显降低（P ＜0.05）。外周血液S-100β蛋白I/R组明显高于S组和ISO组（P ＜0.05）;CsA＋ISO组与ISO组比较显著升高（P ＜0.05）,I/R组,CsA＋ISO组和CsA组与缺血前比较明显升高（ P ＜0.05）,缺血前S-100β蛋白含量五组无显著性差异（ P ＜0.05）。结论大鼠肝部分缺血再灌注后对脑组织造成了一定程度损伤,而异氟烷预处理对此损伤具有一定保护作用;其作用的机制可能与异氟烷抑制MPTP开放,降低线粒体游离Ca2＋浓度,防止了线粒体Ca2＋超载有关。     

Closure of VDAC causes oxidative stress and accelerates the Ca-induced mitochondrial permeability transition in rat liver mitochondria

The electron transport chain of mitochondria is a major source of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which play a critical role in augmenting the Ca²⁺-induced mitochondrial permeability transition (MPT). Mitochondrial release of superoxide anions (O₂⁻) from the intermembrane space (IMS) to the cytosol is mediated by voltage dependent anion channels (VDAC) in the outer membrane. Here, we examined whether closure of VDAC increases intramitochondrial oxidative stress by blocking efflux of O₂⁻ from the IMS and sensitizing to the Ca²⁺-induced MPT. Treatment of isolated rat liver mitochondria with 5 μM G3139, an 18-mer phosphorothioate blocker of VDAC, accelerated onset of the MPT by 6.8 ± 1.4 min within a range of 100-250 μM Ca²⁺. G3139-mediated acceleration of the MPT was reversed by 20 μM butylated hydroxytoluene, a water soluble antioxidant. Pre-treatment of mitochondria with G3139 also increased accumulation of O₂⁻ in mitochondria, as monitored by dihydroethidium fluorescence, and permeabilization of the mitochondrial outer membrane with digitonin reversed the effect of G3139 on O₂⁻ accumulation. Mathematical modeling of generation and turnover of O₂⁻ within the IMS indicated that closure of VDAC produces a 1.55-fold increase in the steady-state level of mitochondrial O₂⁻. In conclusion, closure of VDAC appears to impede the efflux of superoxide anions from the IMS, resulting in an increased steady-state level of O₂⁻, which causes an internal oxidative stress and sensitizes mitochondria toward the Ca²⁺-induced MPT.     

Dysfunction of rat liver mitochondria by selenite: induction of mitochondrial permeability transition through thiol-oxidation

Selenium is an essential trace element in mammals and is thought to play a chemopreventive role in human cancer, possibly by inducing tumor cell apoptosis. Mitochondria play a pivotal role in the induction of apoptosis in many cell types. The effects of selenite on mitochondrial function were therefore investigated. Selenite induced the oxidation and cross-linking of protein thiol groups, mitochondrial permeability transition (MPT), a decrease in the mitochondrial membrane potential, and the release of cytochrome c in mitochondria isolated from rat liver. Induction of the MPT by selenite was prevented by cyclosporin A, EGTA, or N-ethylmaleimide. These results thus indicate that selenite induces the MPT as a result of direct modification of protein thiol groups, resulting in the release of cytochrome c and a loss of mitochondrial membrane potential.     

Phenylarsine oxide induces the cyclosporin A-sensitive membrane permeability transition in rat liver mitochondria

This paper reports an investigation on the effects of the hydrophobic, bifunctional SH group reagent phenylarsine oxide (PhAsO) on mitochondrial membrane permeability. We show that PhAsO is a potent inducer of the mitochondrial permeability transition in a process which is sensitive to both the oxygen radical scavanger BHT and to cyclosporin A. The PhAsO-induced permeability transition is stimulated by Ca²⁺ but takes place also in the presence of EGTA in a process that maintains its sensitivity to BHT and cyclosporin A. Our findings suggest that, at variance from other known inducers of the permeability transition, PhAsO reacts directly with functional SH groups that are inaccessible to hydrophilic reagents in the absence of Ca²⁺.     

Mitochondrial Effects of Triarylmethane Dyes

The mitochondrial effects of submicromolar concentrations of six triarylmethane dyes, withpotential applications in antioncotic photodynamic therapy, were studied. All dyes promotedan inhibition of glutamate or succinate-supported respiration in uncoupled mitochondria, in amanner stimulated photodynamically. No inhibition of N,N,N,N-tetramethyl-p-phenylenediamine(TMPD) supported respiration was observed, indicating that these dyes do not affectmitochondrial complex IV. When mitochondria were energized with TMPD in the absence ofan uncoupler, treatment with victoria blue R, B, or BO, promoted a dissipation of mitochondrialmembrane potential and increase of respiratory rates, compatible with mitochondrialuncoupling. This effect was observed even in the dark, and was not prevented by EGTA, Mg²⁺ orcyclosporin A, suggesting that it is promoted by a direct effect of the dye on inner mitochondrialmembrane permeability to protons. Indeed, victoria blue R, B, and BO promoted swellingof valinomycin-treated mitochondria incubated in a hyposmotic K⁺-acetate-based medium,confirming that these dyes act as classic protonophores such as FCCP. On the other hand, ethylviolet, crystal violet, and malachite green promoted a dissipation of mitochondrial membranepotential, accompanied by mitochondrial swelling, which was prevented by EGTA, Mg²⁺, andcyclosporin A, demonstrating that these drugs induce mitochondrial permeability transition.This mitochondrial permeabilization was followed by respiratory inhibition, attributable tocytochrome c release, and was caused by the oxidation of NAD(P)H promoted by these drugs.     

Ultrastructural zonal heterogeneity of hepatocytes and mitochondria within the hepatic acinus during liver regeneration after partial hepatectomy

BACKGROUND INFORMATION: Partial hepatectomy (70%) induces cell proliferation until the original mass of the liver is restored. In the first 24 h after partial hepatectomy, drastic changes in the metabolism of the remaining liver have been shown to occur. To evaluate changes in hepatocyte ultrastructure within the hepatic acinus during the liver regenerative process, we investigated, by light and electron microscopy observations on specimens taken 0 h, 24 h and 96 h after partial hepatectomy, the hepatocyte structure and ultrastructure in the periportal and pericentral area of the hepatic acinus, with a particular emphasis on mitochondria ultrastructure. Moreover, some biochemical events that could affect the mitochondria ultrastructure and function were investigated. RESULTS: We found that, 24 h after partial hepatectomy, mitochondria with altered ultrastructure were preferentially localized in the periportal area. Periportal hepatocytes showed also an increase in the number of peroxisomes, free ribosomes, lysosomes and autophagosomes. Altered mitochondria showed swelling, an ultrastructural index of increased membrane permeability, a reduction in the number of cristae, and a rarefied, often vacuoled, matrix. Consistently, an increase in the mitochondrial oxidized/reduced glutathione ratio was found as well as calcium release from mitochondria in a manner inhibited by cyclosporin A. Interestingly, light and electron microscopy analysis showed that the hepatocytes in the periportal area were the cells with the major structural attributes to proliferate. At 96 h after partial hepatectomy, the preferential zonation of altered mitochondria was lost and the normal mitochondrial membrane permeability properties were restored. CONCLUSIONS: We suggest that 24 h after partial hepatectomy, a preferential zonation of altered mitochondria in the periportal hepatocytes could be involved in the changes of metabolic and functional heterogeneity of the hepatocytes within the hepatic acinus during the regenerative process.     

Circumventing the Crabtree Effect: A method to induce lactate consumption and increase oxidative phosphorylation in cell culture

Most cells grown in glucose-containing medium generate almost all their ATP via glycolysis despite abundant oxygen supply and functional mitochondria, a phenomenon known as the Crabtree effect. By contrast, most cells within the body rely on mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) to generate the bulk of their energy supply. Thus, when utilising the accessibility of cell culture to elucidate fundamental elements of mitochondria in health and disease, it is advantageous to adopt culture conditions under which the cells have greater reliance upon OXPHOS for the supply of their energy needs. Substituting galactose for glucose in the culture medium can provide these conditions, but additional benefit can be gained from alternate in vitro models. Herein we describe culture conditions in which complete autonomous depletion of medium glucose induces a lactate-consuming phase marked by increased MitoTracker Deep Red staining intensity, increased expression of Kreb’s cycle proteins, increased expression of electron transport chain subunits, and increased sensitivity to the OXPHOS inhibitor rotenone. We propose these culture conditions represent an alternate accessible model for the in vitro study of cellular processes and diseases involving the mitochondrion without limitations incurred via the Crabtree effect.     

Naproxen affects Ca(2+) fluxes in mitochondria, microsomes and plasma membrane vesicles

There is substantial evidence that nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) affect cellular processes regulated by Ca(2+) ions, including the metabolic responses of the liver to Ca(2+)-dependent hormones. The aim of the present study was to determine whether the effects of naproxen are mediated by a direct action on cellular Ca(2+) fluxes. The effects of naproxen on 45Ca(2+) fluxes in mitochondria, microsomes and inside-out plasma membrane vesicles were examined. Naproxen strongly impaired the mitochondrial capacity to retain 45Ca(2+) and inhibited also ATP-dependent 45Ca(2+) uptake by microsomes. Naproxen did not modify 45Ca(2+) uptake by inside-out plasma membrane vesicles, but it inhibited the hexokinase/glucose-induced Ca(2+) efflux from preloaded vesicles. Additional assays performed in isolated mitochondria revealed that naproxen causes mitochondrial uncoupling and swelling in the presence of Ca(2+) ions. These effects were prevented by EGTA, ruthenium red and cyclosporin A, indicating that naproxen acts synergistically with Ca(2+) ions by promoting the mitochondrial permeability transition. The experimental results suggest that naproxen may impair the metabolic responses to Ca(2+)-dependent hormones acting by at least two mechanisms: (1) by interfering with the supply of external Ca(2+) through a direct action on the plasma membrane Ca(2+) influx, and (2) by affecting the refilling of the agonist-sensitive internal stores, including endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria.     

Effects of Decreasing Mitochondrial Volume on the Regulation of the Permeability Transition Pore

The permeability transition pore (PTP) is a Ca²⁺-sensitive mitochondrial inner membrane channel involved in several models of cell death. Because the matrix concentration of PTP regulatory factors depends on matrix volume, we have investigated the role of the mitochondrial volume in PTP regulation. By incubating rat liver mitochondria in media of different osmolarity, we found that the Ca²⁺ threshold required for PTP opening dramatically increased when mitochondrial volume decreased relative to the standard condition. This shrinkage-induced PTP inhibition was not related to the observed changes in protonmotive force, or pyridine nucleotide redox state and persisted when mitochondria were depleted of adenine nucleotides. On the other hand, mitochondrial volume did not affect PTP regulation when mitochondria were depleted of Mg²⁺. By studying the effects of Mg²⁺, cyclosporin A (CsA) and ubiquinone 0 (Ub₀) on PTP regulation, we found that mitochondrial shrinkage increased the efficacy of Mg²⁺ and Ub₀ at PTP inhibition, whereas it decreased that of CsA. The ability of mitochondrial volume to alter the activity of several PTP regulators represents a hitherto unrecognized characteristic of the pore that might lead to a new approach for its pharmacological modulation.     

Mersalyl prevents the Tl+-induced permeability transition pore opening in the inner membrane of Ca2+-loaded rat liver mitochondria

It was earlier shown that the calcium load of rat liver mitochondria in medium containing TlNO₃ and KNO₃ resulted in the Tl⁺-induced mitochondrial permeability transition pore (MPTP) opening in the inner membrane. This opening was accompanied by an increase in swelling and membrane potential dissipation and a decrease in state 3, state 4, and 2,4-dinitrophenol-uncoupled respiration. This respiratory decrease was markedly leveled by mersalyl (MSL), the phosphate symporter (PiC) inhibitor which poorly stimulated the calcium-induced swelling, but further increased the potential dissipation. All of these effects of Ca²⁺ and MSL were visibly reduced in the presence of the MPTP inhibitors (ADP, N-ethylmaleimide, and cyclosporine A). High MSL concentrations attenuated the ability of ADP to inhibit the MPTP. Our data suggest that the PiC can participate in the Tl⁺-induced MPTP opening in the inner membrane of Ca²⁺-loaded rat liver mitochondria.     

Permeability transition pore of the inner mitochondrial membrane can operate in two open states with different selectivities

Prooxidants induce release of Ca²⁺ from mitochondria through the giant solute pore in the mitochondrial inner membrane. However, under appropriate conditions prooxidants can induce Ca²⁺ release without inducing a nonspecific permeability change. Prooxidant-induced release of Ca²⁺ isselective. Presumably, this is the result of the operation of a permeability pathway for H⁺ coupled to the reversal of the Ca²⁺ uniporter, the latter generating the selectivity. The solute pore and prooxidant-induced Ca²⁺-specific pathways exhibit common sensitivities to a set of inhibitors and activators. It is proposed that the pore can operate in two open states: (1) permeable to H⁺ only and (2) permeable to solutes of M_r<1500. Under some conditions, prooxidants induce the H⁺-selective state which, in turn, collapses the inner membrane potential and permits selective loss of Ca²⁺ via the Ca²⁺ uniporter.     

Ascorbate and low concentrations of FeSO4 induce Ca2+-dependent pore in rat liver mitochondria

Oxidative stress is one of the most frequent causes of tissue and cell injury in various pathologies. The molecular mechanism of mitochondrial damage under conditions of oxidative stress induced in vitro with low concentrations of FeSO₄ and ascorbate (vitamin C) was studied. FeSO₄ (1-4 M) added to rat liver mitochondria that were incubated in the presence of 2.3 mM ascorbate induced (with a certain delay) a decrease in membrane potential and high-amplitude swelling. It also significantly decreased the ability of mitochondria to accumulate exogenous Ca²⁺. All the effects of FeSO₄ + ascorbate were essentially prevented by cyclosporin A, a specific inhibitor of the mitochondrial Ca²⁺-dependent pore (also known as the mitochondrial permeability transition). EGTA restored the membrane potential of mitochondria de-energized with FeSO₄ + ascorbate. We hypothesize that oxidative stress induced in vitro with FeSO₄ and millimolar concentrations of ascorbate damages mitochondria by inducing the cyclosporin A-sensitive Ca²⁺-dependent pore in the inner mitochondrial membrane.     

Effects of tamoxifen on the electron transport chain of isolated rat liver mitochondria

Tamoxifen (and 4-hydroxytamoxifen), a nonsteroidal triphenylethylene antiestrogenic drug widely used in the treatment of breast cancer, interacts strongly with the respiratory chain of isolated rat liver mitochondria. The drug acts as both an uncoupling agent and a powerful inhibitor of electron transport. Tamoxifen brings about a collapse of the membrane potential. Enzymatic assays and spectroscopic studies indicate that tamoxifen inhibits electron transfer in the respiratory chain at the levels of complex III (ubiquinol–cytochrome-c reductase) and, to a lesser extent, of complex IV (cytochrome-c oxidase). The activities can be restored by the addition of diphosphatidylglycerol, a phospholipid implicated in the functioning of the respiratory chain complexes. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

31P-NMR studies on phospholipid structure in membranes of intact,functionally-active,rat liver mitochondria

³¹P-NMR studies of intact functional rat liver mitochondria at 37°C demonstrate that the large majority (?95%) of endogenous phospholipids exhibit motional properties consistent with bilayer structure. This property is unaffected by oxidative phosphorylation processes or the presence of Ca²⁺.     

Water permeability of rat liver mitochondria: A biophysical study

The movement of water accompanying solutes between the cytoplasm and the mitochondrial spaces is central for mitochondrial volume homeostasis, an important function for mitochondrial activities and for preventing the deleterious effects of excess matrix swelling or contraction. While the discovery of aquaporin water channels in the inner mitochondrial membrane provided valuable insights into the basis of mitochondrial plasticity, questions regarding the identity of mitochondrial water permeability and its regulatory mechanism remain open. Here, we use a stopped flow light scattering approach to define the water permeability and Arrhenius activation energy of the rat liver whole intact mitochondrion and its membrane subcompartments. The water permeabilities of whole brain and testis mitochondria as well as liposome models of the lipid bilayer composing the liver inner mitochondrial membrane are also characterized. Besides finding remarkably high water permeabilities for both mitochondria and their membrane subcompartments, the existence of additional pathways of water movement other than aquaporins are suggested.     

Synergistic protective effect of ischemic preconditioning and allopurinol on ischemia/reperfusion injury in rat liver

This study examined the effects of ischemic preconditioning (IPC), allopurinol (Allo) or a combination of both on the extent of mitochondrial injury caused by hepatic ischemia/reperfusion (I/R). I/R increased the serum aminotransferase activity and the level of mitochondrial lipid peroxidation, whereas it decreased the mitochondrial glutathione level. Either IPC or Allo alone attenuated these changes with Allo+IPC having a synergistic effect. Allo increased the serum nitrite and nitrate level after brief ischemia. The significant peroxide production observed after 10 min of reperfusion after sustained ischemia was markedly attenuated by Allo+IPC. The mitochondria isolated after I/R were swollen, which was reduced by Allo+IPC. At the end of ischemia, the hepatic ATP level was lower and there was significant xanthine accumulation, which was attenuated by Allo+IPC. These results suggest that IPC and Allo act synergistically to protect cells against mitochondrial injury and preserve the hepatic energy metabolism during hepatic I/R.     

Arachidonic acid induces specific membrane permeability increase in heart mitochondria

Micromolar concentrations of arachidonic acid cause in Ca2+ loaded heart mitochondria matrix swelling and Ca2+ release. These effects appear to be unrelated to the classical membrane permeability transition (MPT), as they are CsA insensitive, membrane potential independent and can also be activated by Sr2+. Atractyloside potentiated and ATP inhibited the arachidonic acid induced swelling. These observations suggest that the ATP/ADP translocator (ANT) may be involved in the AA induced, CsA insensitive membrane permeability increase. Under the same experimental conditions used for heart mitochondria, arachidonic acid induced the classical CsA sensitive, ADP inhibitable MPT in liver mitochondria.     

The irreversibility of inner mitochondrial membrane permeabilization by Ca2+ plus prooxidants is determined by the extent of membrane protein thiol cross-linking

We have previously shown that mitochondrial membrane potential () drop promoted by prooxidants and Ca²⁺ can be reversed but not sustained by ethylene glycol-bis(-aminoethylether)-N,N,N,N-tetraacetic acid (EGTA) unless dithiothreitol (DTT), a disulfide reductant, is also added [Valle, V. G. R., Fagian, M. M., Parentoni, L. S., Meinicke, A. R., and Vercesi, A. E. (1993).Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 307, 1–7]. In this study we show that catalase or ADP are also able to potentiate this EGTA effect. When EGTA is added long after (12 min) the completion of swelling or elimination, no membrane resealing occurs unless the EGTA addition was preceded by the inclusion of DTT, ADP, or catalase soon after was collapsed. Total recovery by EGTA is obtained only in the presence of ADP. The sensitivity of the ADP effect to carboxyatractyloside strongly supports the involvement of the ADP/ATP carrier in this mechanism. Sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis of solubilized membrane proteins shows that protein aggregation due to thiol cross-linkage formed during drop continues even after is already eliminated. Titration with 5,5-dithio-bis(2-nitrobenzoic acid) supports the data indicating that the formation of protein aggregates is paralleled by a decrease in the content of membrane protein thiols. Since the presence of ADP and EGTA prevents the progress of protein aggregation, we conclude that this process is responsible for both increased permeability to larger molecules and the irreversibility of drop. The protective effect of catalase suggests that the continuous production of protein thiol cross-linking is mediated by mitochondrial generated reactive oxygen species.