New telomere formation during the process of chromatin diminution in Ascaris suum

Chromatin diminution in the parasitic nematode Ascaris suum represents an interesting case of developmentally programmed DNA rearrangement in higher eukaryotes. At the molecular level, it is a rather complex event including chromosome breakage, new telomere formation and DNA degradation. Analysis of a cloned somatic telomere (pTel1) revealed that it has been newly created during the process of chromatin diminution by the addition of telomeric repeats (TTAGGC)n to a chromosomal breakage site (Müller et al., 1991). However, telomere addition does not occur at a single chromosomal locus, but at many different sites within a short chromosomal region, termed CBR1 (chromosomal breakage region 1). Here we present the cloning and the analysis of 83 different PCR amplified telomere addition sites from the region of CBR1. The lack of any obvious sequence homology shared among them argues for a telomerase-mediated healing process, rather than for a recombinational event. This hypothesis is strongly supported by the existence of 1-6 nucleotides corresponding to and being in frame with the newly added telomeric repeats at almost all of the telomere addition sites. Furthermore, we show that telomeres are not only added to the ends of the retained chromosomal portions, but also to the eliminated part of the chromosomes, which later on become degraded in the cytoplasm. This result suggests that de novo telomere formation during the process of chromatin diminution represents a non-specific process which can heal any broken DNA end.     

Developmentally regulated telomerase activity is correlated with chromosomal healing during chromatin diminution in Ascaris suum

Telomerase is the ribonucleoprotein complex responsible for the maintenance of the physical ends, or telomeres, of most eukaryotic chromosomes. In this study, telomerase activity has been identified in cell extracts from the nematode Ascaris suum. This parasitic nematode is particularly suited as a model system for the study of telomerase, because it shows the phenomenon of chromatin diminution, consisting of developmentally programmed chromosomal breakage, DNA elimination, and new telomere formation. In vitro, the A. suum telomerase is capable of efficiently recognizing and elongating nontelomeric primers with nematode-specific telomere repeats by using limited homology at the 3' end of the DNA to anneal with the putative telomerase RNA template. The activity of this enzyme is developmentally regulated, and it correlates temporally with the phenomenon of chromatin diminution. It is up-regulated during the first two rounds of embryonic cell divisions, to reach a peak in 4-cell-stage embryos, when three presomatic blastomeres prepare for chromatin diminution. The activity remains high until the beginning of gastrulation, when the last of the presomatic cells undergoes chromatin diminution, and then constantly decreases during further development. In summary, our data strongly argue for a role of this enzyme in chromosome healing during the process of chromatin diminution.     

Molecular aspects of chromatin elimination in Ascaris lumbricoides

DNA from spermatids, 4-cell stages, and larvae of Ascaris lumbricoides was isolated, and the genome size before and after chromatin elimination was determined by isotope dilution. According to these determinations, 27% of the DNA is lost during the process of chromatin elimination. This value is based on the assumption that larval nuclei are diploid. The genomes were then characterized by CsCl equilibrium density gradient centrifugation and renaturation kinetics. The eliminated DNA does not differ from the retained DNA in base composition. About 26% of the DNA of 4-cell stage embryos sediments as a light satellite and was shown to be mitochondrial DNA by electron microscopy. Renaturation kinetics revealed that 10% of the retained somatic DNA is repetitious with an average family size of 5500 to 7000 copies, whereas 90% of the retained DNA is presumably composed of unique sequences. By contrast, germ-line DNA contains 23% fast renaturing DNA with a family size of 7000 to 10,000 copies. Thus, eliminated DNA consists of repetitious and unique sequences in a ratio of about 1:1.     

Chromatin diminution in early embryogenesis of Ascaris lumbricoides L. var. suum

The occurrence of chromatin diminution in early Ascaris lumbricoides L. embryos has been studied in detail, and it is shown that it is possible to preselect three characteristic types of mitoses: pre-diminution, diminution, and post-diminution mitosis. The first three embryonic mitotic divisions are of the pre-diminution type. Chromatin diminution occurs after the third mitosis, but there is a variation from embryo to embryo as to whether or not chromosomal diminution occurs during the fourth, fifth, and six divisions. However, the seventh embryonic division, which gives rise to an eight-cell embryo, always exhibits chromatin diminution. Subsequent mitoses of somatic cells already in the diminished state are of the post-diminution type of mitosis.     

Neither a germ line-specific nor several somatically expressed genes are lost or rearranged during embryonic chromatin diminution in the nematode Ascaris lumbricoides var. suum

Ascaris lumbricoides var. suum is a parasitic nematode of pigs. Its embryos undergo chromatin diminution between the third and fifth cleavages, resulting in the loss of about 30% of the DNA from all somatic precursor cells while the germ line DNA stays intact. Most of the eliminated DNA has been shown to be satellite sequences. Theodor Boveri [(1910) In "Festschrift fur R. Hertwig, III," Vol. 3, pp. 131-214, Fischer] proposed that functions essential only to the germ line might be lost from the soma. We have examined this proposal by cloning a gene encoding the major sperm protein (MSP) using a cloned MSP gene from Caenorhabditis elegans as a probe. The MSP appears to be expressed only in the testis of Ascaris, as it is in Caenorhabditis. Actin and alpha tubulin were also cloned to serve as somatically expressed gene controls. By probing Southern blots of somatic and germ line DNA with these cloned genes, it was found that none of them was lost or rearranged during chromatin diminution. Thus at least one germ line-specific gene is neither lost nor rearranged during chromatin diminution. We also found that the two nematode species differ widely in their numbers of both MSP and actin genes. Caenorhabditis has greater than 30 MSP genes, but Ascaris has no more than three; whereas Ascaris has many more actin genes than Caenorhabditis.     

New telomere formation coupled with site-specific chromosome breakage in Tetrahymena thermophila.

Programmed chromosome breakage occurs in many ciliated protozoa and is accompanied by efficient new telomere formation. In this study, we have investigated the relationship between programmed chromosome breakage and telomere formation in Tetrahymena thermophila. Using specially constructed DNA clones containing the breakage signal Cbs in transformation studies, we have determined the locations of telomere addition around the breakage sites. They occur at variable positions, over 90% of which are within a small region (less than 30 bp) starting 4 bp from Cbs. This distribution is independent of the nucleotide sequence in the region or of the orientation of Cbs. In five of six cases determined, these sites occur at or before a T, and in the remaining case, the site occurs at or before a G. When sequences devoid of G or T are placed in this region, telomere addition still occurs within the region to maintain a similar distance relationship with Cbs. This efficient and healing process appears to be associated specifically with Cbs-directed breakage, since it does not occur when DNA ends are generated by restriction enzyme digestion. These results suggest a strong mechanistic link between chromosome breakage and telomere formation.     

Analysis of genes developmentally regulated during storage root formation of sweet potato

To identify the genes involved in storage root formation of sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas), we performed a simplified differential display analysis on adventitious roots at different developmental stages of the storage root. The expression patterns were confirmed by semiquantitative RT-PCR analyses. As a result, 10 genes were identified as being developmentally regulated and were named SRF1-SRF10. The expression of SRF1, SRF2, SRF3, SRF5, SRF6, SRF7, and SRF9 increased during storage root formation, whereas the expression of SRF4, SRF8, and SRF10 decreased. For further characterization, a full-length cDNA of SRF6 was isolated from the cDNA library of the storage root. SRF6 encoded a receptor-like kinase (RLK), which was structurally similar to the leucine-rich repeat (LRR) II RLK family of Arabidopsis thaliana. RNA gel blot analysis showed that the mRNA of SRF6 was most abundantly expressed in the storage roots, although a certain amount of expression was also observed in other vegetative organs. Tissue print mRNA blot analysis of the storage root showed that the mRNA of SRF6 was localized around the primary cambium and meristems in the xylem, which consist of actively dividing cells and cause the thickening of the storage root.     

Cytophotometric study of nuclear proteins during gametogenesis in Ascaris lumbricoides.

Reduction in the number of nucleoli/nucleus and increase in their size were usually observed in rat liver after partial hepatectomy. These changes of nucleoli were greatest 16–18 h after the operation, when RNA biosynthesis in the nucleoli is reported to be highest. Approx. 50% of the nuclei had one enlarged nucleolus at this time but after the increase in nuclear DNA synthesis less than 15% of the nuclei had one nucleolus, as in normal liver. Before the next peak of nuclear DNA synthesis, nucleolar changes appeared again, though less conspicuously.The enlarged nucleoli of regenerating liver were separated from smaller ones by discontinuous sucrose gradient centrifugation and the contents of nucleic acid and ribosomal cistrons in different-sized nucleoli were measured. The large nucleoli in regenerating liver were found to have increased DNA content, whereas smaller ones had the normal content. The total number of ribosomal cistrons in the enlarged nucleoli from regenerating liver was also increased roughly in proportion to the DNA content. No significant difference was found between the percentages of ribosomal cistrons in whole nuclear DNAs from regenerating and normal liver. Small but reproducible [³H]TdR incorporation into nucleolar DNA was observed and this was similar in normal liver and regenerating liver 12 h after partial hepatectomy. Therefore, the nucleolar changes in regenerating liver were not accompanied by any particular DNA synthesis in the nucleolus itself. These results suggest that in the nuclei of regenerating liver nucleolar chromatins may be redistributed and assembled into large nucleoli, rather than that any amplification of ribosomal cistrons occurs.     

Porphyrins in the perienteric fluid of Ascaris lumbricoides.

Cain G. D. and Bassow F. 1976. Porphyrins in the perienteric fluid of Ascaris lumbricoides. International Journal for Parasitology6: 79–82. Porphyrins in the perienteric fluid of adult female A. lumbricoides were esterified in methanolic H₂SO₄, extracted in chloroform, separated by thin-layer chromatography, and identified spectrophotometrically before and after conversion to their zinc and copper chelates. Protoporphyrin IX was the major component, comprising 95·4% of the total; the remaining 4·6 % was coproporphyrin III. Uroporphyrin was not detected; no porphyrins were recovered from other worm tissues. Fluid from worms with light and dark colored guts varied in protoporphyrin content from 0·58 to 4·08 nmoles/ml, respectively, but fluid from both groups contained similar molar ratios of protoporphyrin, coproporphyrin and heme.     

Development of Ascaris lumbricoides eggs from females eliminated after chemotherapy in man.

The development of Ascaris lumbricoides eggs obtained from females eliminated after treatment of infected individuals with a single oral dose of the antihelminthic drugs thiabendazole (50 mg/kg--33 patients) or levamisole (250 mg--independent of body weight--20 patients) was studied. Every female eliminated up to 72 h after treatment were dissected, the uterus isolated and sectioned into small fragments. The eggs were transferred to plastics tubes and incubated at 28 degrees C in 0.1 N H2SO4 for 100 days. Every 20 days, starting from the 20 th up to the 100 th day, the extent of egg embryonation ratio was determined. The culture of A. lumbricoides eggs obtained from females from patients treated with thiabendazole did not contain embryonated eggs until the final period of observation. In contrast, the eggs obtained from females eliminated by patients treated with levamisole (control) presented an embryonation rate of 0.0-98.0% in the same period.     

Precocious formation of synaptonemal-like polycomplexes and their subsequent fate in female Ascaris lumbricoides var. suum

During meiotic interphase, before leptotene, synaptonemal-like polycomplexes are seen in the cytoplasm of the Ascaris lumbricoides oocytes and in the communal anucleate rachis. In some females short intranuclear synaptonemal complexes are present briefly at that early stage. The number of extranuclear complexes increases just before leptotene, some are attached to the pores of the nuclear membrane. During zygotene most polycomplexes disappear. At late pachytene they reappear in some females but not in others. The morphology, when first seen, is that of disorganized filamentous bodies, later lateral elements appear among the filaments. The dimensions of the lateral elements of the polycomplexes are variable. In the male the distribution of polycomplexes among the rachis, the cell cytoplasm, and at the nuclear envelope is similar to that observed in the female.These observations confirm the precocious occurrence of synaptonemal-like polycomplexes reported by Bogdanov (1977). Ascaris lumbricoides thus, uniquely, appears to manufacture synaptonemal complex-like material in the communal cytoplasm of the germ cells prior to the time that the full complement of synaptonemal complexes appears in the nucleus.     

Ascaris lumbricoides: zonal localization of immunoreactive collagen in the cuticle

Monoclonal antibodies that were raised against cuticular components from the free-living nematode Panagrellus silusiae were found to react with a cuticular collagenous domain from Ascaris lumbricoides. One of these monoclonal antibodies was used to localize the collagenous epitope within sectioned Ascaris cuticles. By indirect immunofluorescence, accessible binding sites were observed in the basal zone of the cuticle. Immunological staining occurred in the innermost lamella of the basal zone, i.e., basal lamella, in which the fibrillar palisade gave a strong response. The three layers of the spiral fiber system of the basal zone exhibited a distinctive immunofluorescence pattern. In each of these layers, irregular shaped blocks, often quadrangular, were immunostained; whereas, adjacent blocks were immunonegative. Immunostaining was, for the most part, absent from the cortical and medial zones of the cuticle as well as from other tissues within the worm.     

Chromosome diminution in Ascaris suum. Two-fold increase of nucleosomal histone to DNA ratios during development

The swine intestinal nematode, Ascaris suum, eliminates chromatin material from its primordial somatic cells during early embryogenesis. A technique for isolation of nuclei from pre- and post-diminution stage embryos has been developed and these isolated nuclei were used in investigations of nuclear events during diminution. The amount of DNA per nucleus determined by diphenylamine assays and isotope dilutions was 0.66 pg and 0.29 pg in pre- and post-diminution nuclei, respectively. Thus, A. suum loses 56% of its nuclear DNA during diminution. The loss of nuclear DNA enabled in vivo examination of histone to DNA ratios as a function of changes in DNA quantities. Ascaris histones were identified by acid extractability and tryptic fingerprint comparison with rat liver histones. Measurement of histone quantities was accomplished using linearity of Coomassie blue binding to histones separated in dodecyl sulfate gels. Ascaris nucleosomal histones levels were relatively constant in pre- and post-diminution nuclei. However, nucleosomal histone to DNA ratios approximately doubled during diminution.