Equestrian Coaches' Understanding and Application of Learning Theory in Horse Training

ABSTRACT

To assess the knowledge of learning theory among accredited equestrian coaches in Australia, a 20-item questionnaire was distributed to all coaches registered with the National Coaches Accreditation Scheme in Australia (n = 830). Of the 206 respondents, 79.5% considered positive reinforcement to be “very useful,” yet only 2.8% correctly explained its use in horse training. When asked about the usefulness of negative reinforcement, 19.3% of coaches considered it “very useful,” with 11.9% correctly explaining its use. Punishment was rated “very useful” by 5.2% of respondents, although only eight coaches (5.4%) explained punishment correctly. Release of pressure was considered the most effective reward for horses among respondents (78.2%). These results indicate that many equestrian coaches lack a correct understanding of positive and negative reinforcement as they apply to horse training. Given that qualified coaches play a significant role in the dissemination of information on training practices, this highlights the need for improved education of equestrian coaches. Education to remedy this situation has the potential to enhance the welfare of horses through reduced behavioral conflict and improve training outcomes.     

Risk Factors for High Endoparasitic Burden and the Efficiency of a Single Anthelmintic Treatment of Danish Horses

A questionnaire survey regarding endoparasite control practices in Danish horse herds was carried out in 1995. The participating veterinarians and herd owners were sampled using convenience and purposive sampling. In the analysis of risk factors for development of a high endoparasitic burden (>200 eggs per gram faeces) 903 horses were sampled and the analysis of the efficiency of a single anthelmintic treatment was based on 605 horses. The following factors had a significant effect on the endoparasitic burden: herd type, age of the horses, use of pasture rotation, anthelmintic treatment of horses visiting the herd, use of an adviser in the planning of endoparasite control and advice regarding pasture rotation. An interaction between pasture rotation and advice regarding pasture rotation was found, but due to high collinearity this was not reported. The factors influencing significantly on the reduction of the faecal egg count after a single anthelmintic treatment were the type of herd, the age of the horse, the drug used, and the anthelmintic-resistance-status of the herd. A negative effect of permanent pastures was observed. If pasture hygiene was performed on the advice of the veterinarian, the effect of a single anthelmintic treatment was less compared to a single anthelmintic treatment without any advice. An interaction between the treatment group and the resistance-status of the herd was found. Additional factors, normally accounted for, when endoparasites and anthelmintic resistance is discussed, were investigated, but not found significant in this study.     

Soziale Organisation und Verhalten einer Jungtierherde beim Camargue-Pferd

Corroborative results from various horse studies led to the conclusion that management factors might influence horse social organisation. In a free-living range-restricted population of 130 horses in the Camargue, a “young herd” whose formation had not previously been recorded, was observed for a period of one year in order to study the effects of still another management system. The uneven distribution of positive and agonistic interactions resulted in a social structure. This structure was stable for 9 months but changed afterwards. The results are compared with those from other horse studies and three variables, i. e. management, population composition and individual differences are developed into a preliminary model from which to predict what factorial combinations lead to what formations.     

Is there evidence of learned helplessness in horses?

Learned helplessness is a psychological condition whereby individuals learn that they have no control over unpleasant or harmful conditions, that their actions are futile, and that they are helpless. In a series of experiments in which dogs were exposed to inescapable shocks, this lack of control subsequently interfered with the ability to learn an avoidance task. There is evidence that both neural adaptations and behavioral despair occur in response to uncontrollable aversive experiences in rodents, although this has yet to be demonstrated in other species such as horses. However, certain traditional methods of horse training and some behavioral modification techniques--it has been suggested--may involve aversive conditions over which the horse has little or no control. When training and management procedures are repeatedly unpleasant for the horse and there is no clear association between behavior and outcome, this is likely to interfere with learning and performance-in addition to compromising welfare. This article reviews published literature and anecdotal evidence to explore the possibility that the phenomenon, learned helplessness, occurs in the horse.     

Physiological and Behavioral Responses of Horses to Wither Scratching and Patting the Neck When Under Saddle

Riding is considered to be an arousing activity for horses. It has been suggested that wither scratching may be a more useful tool for relaxation compared with the common practice of neck patting. In the current study, 18 horses were exposed to 3 treatments, including control or no interaction, neck patting, and wither scratching, for 1 min each following a short obstacle course. Heart rate, heart rate variability, and a variety of behaviors were measured in the horses. Wither scratching produced a significantly longer duration of relaxed-type behaviors. Wither scratching could be a useful tool to help a horse relax while under saddle. Additionally, the study identified 2 ear positions that may be useful for future research in horse behavior.     

Genetic variation in Przewalski's horses, with special focus on the last wild caught mare, 231 Orlitza III

In our continuing efforts to document genetic diversity in Przewalski's horses and relatedness with domestic horses, we report genetic variation at 22 loci of blood group and protein polymorphisms and 29 loci of DNA (microsatellite) polymorphisms. The loci have been assigned by linkage or synteny mapping to 20 autosomes and the X chromosome of the domestic horse (plus four loci unassigned to a chromosome). With cumulative data from tests of 568 Przewalski's horses using blood, hair or tooth samples, no species-defining markers were identified, however a few markers were present in the wild species but not in domestic horses. Inheritance patterns and linkage relationships reported in domestic horses appeared to be conserved in Przewalski's horses. A derived type for the last wild caught mare 231 Orlitza III provided evidence for markers apparently not found in (or not currently available by descent from) the other species founders that were captured at the end of the nineteenth century. This information has been critical to the development of parentage analyses in the studbook population of Przewalski's horses at Askania Nova, at one time the largest herd of captive animals and the source of stock for reintroduction efforts. Some horses in the study showed genetic incompatibilities with their sire or dam, contradicting published studbook information. In many cases alternative parentage could be assigned from living animals. To assist in identification of correct parentage, DNA marker types for deceased horses were established from archived materials (teeth) or derived from offspring. Genetic markers were present in pedigreed animals whose origin could not be accounted for from founders. Genetic distance analysis of erythrocyte protein, electrophoretic and microsatellite markers in Przewlaski's horses and ten breeds of domestic horse place the Przewalski's horse as an outgroup to domestic horses, introgression events from domestic horses not withstanding.     

Horses grazing with cattle have reduced strongyle egg count due to the dilution effect and increased reliance on macrocyclic lactones in mixed farms

Strongyle infection is an important issue in horse breeding. It impairs horse health and performance, with young horses being the most sensitive. Strongyle control has long relied on the systematic use of chemical treatments. However, expanding anthelmintic resistance among strongyles calls for alternative options. Mixed grazing is assumed to reduce strongyle load on the pasture as the result of a dilution effect. This has been shown in small ruminants grazing with cattle, but the putative benefits of co-grazing between horses and cattle have not yet been evaluated. Here, we conducted field surveys and face-to-face interviews on 44 farms from two contrasted saddle-horse production areas, Normandy and northern Massif Central, to compare equine strongyle management practices between specialized systems and mixed horse-cattle systems. Our goals were (i) to quantify breeders’ awareness of the putative benefits associated with the co-grazing of horses and cattle, (ii) to establish whether mixed farming was associated with different strongyle management strategies and (iii) to test whether strongyle egg excretion was reduced in horses grazed with beef cattle. Every breeder relied on systematic calendar treatments, and only 8 out of the 23 mixed breeders were aware that co-grazing of horses with cattle could be used as part of their strongyle control strategy. Management practices were similar across both systems in Normandy. In Massif Central, mixed breeders formed a distinct cluster from their specialized counterparts: deworming was less frequent and stocking density was higher in mixed farms, while specialized breeders seemed more willing to integrate herd and plot management into control strategies. Faecal egg counts measured in horses from Massif Central were significantly reduced when horses were grazed with cattle. This was the result of an increased reliance on macrocyclic lactones in mixed farms (P < 0.01) and a significant dilution effect (P < 0.01). When considering a subsample of horses treated with macrocyclic lactones only, young horses grazed with cattle had 50% fewer strongyle eggs excreted in their faeces than horses grazed in equine-only pastures (P < 0.01). This is the first evidence of the benefits of mixed grazing with cattle as an alternative to control strongyle infection in horses, although this promising alternative remains largely unknown by horse breeders.     

Chinese Mongolian horses may retain early domestic male genetic lineages yet to be discovered

The Mongolian horse represents one of the most ancient extant horse populations. In this study we determined the male‐specific region of the Y chromosome (MSY) haplotype distribution in 60 Chinese Mongolian horses representing five distinct populations. Cosmopolitan male lineages were predominant in horses from one improved (Sanhe), one Chinese Mongolian subtype (Baicha Iron Hoof) and one indigenous (Abaga Black) population. In contrast, autochthonous Y chromosome diversity was evident among the two landrace populations (Wushen and Wuzhumuqin), as the majority of their MSY haplotypes were situated at root nodes in a network. Our results also suggest gene flow between Chinese Mongolian and Arabian horses, as an appreciable number of Wuzhumuqin horses carried haplotypes that are typically observed in Arabian horses. Although most horses carried modern haplotypes as a direct result of recent breed improvement, authentic Chinese Mongolian horses retain an ancient signature of paternal lineages that has not previously been described in extant horse populations. Therefore, further characterization of MSY variation in these populations will be important for the discovery of lost diversity in modern domestic horses and also for understanding the evolutionary history of equine paternal lineages.     

Horses do not exhibit motor bias when their balance is challenged

In many equestrian pursuits such as dressage and show-jumping, it is important that the horse exhibits the same level of balance when ridden to the left as when ridden to the right in canter - that is, to show no motor bias. It is a long-held belief within such disciplines that to reduce bias that exists in horses and thus to enhance symmetry of performance to the left and right, the horse needs to be worked equally in both directions, although there is a lack of scientific evidence of this influencing bias. There also is little compelling evidence for either the existence or absence of motor bias in unridden (and therefore younger) or ridden (and therefore older) horses. In this study, we tested whether there was a difference in motor bias between unridden (n = 15) and ridden (n = 15) horses when their balance was challenged by cantering them in circles both to the left and to the right on the lunge. As indicators of a difference in balance between the left and right and thus as indicators of motor bias, we conducted three lunging tests - time spent in canter, whether the horse cantered on the correct lead and whether it became disunited. A grazing stance test, where the extended foreleg during grazing was recorded as the preferred forelimb, was also used to compare responses in a test where balance was not actively challenged, to the three lunging tests where balance was actively challenged. No bias was found in either the unridden or ridden groups when their balance was challenged, but ridden horses exhibited a motor bias in grazing stance - when their balance was not challenged. There was also a correlation between the responses in all three lunging tests, but none between the grazing stance test and any of the three lunging tests. We therefore conclude that neither ridden nor unridden horses are biased when their balance is challenged; thus it cannot be concluded that ambidextrous training affects an inherent bias, and that estimation of motor bias in horses is affected by the test conditions. Finally, if ridden horses are truly unbiased, strong human motor bias might be responsible for the common perception amongst riders that horses are biased.     

基于线粒体基因组的藏马高原适应及系统发育分析

研究测定了西藏那曲（4,500m）、云南中甸（3,300m）、云南德钦（3,300m）地区3匹藏马线粒体全基因组序列。3个地区的藏马线粒体基因组全长以及结构均与韩国济州岛的马类似,但比瑞典马线粒体基因组短。藏马基因组在DNA序列上的两两相似性达993％。通过对线粒体蛋白编码区的分析发现,NADH6基因的蛋白序列在三匹藏马中均表现快速进化的现象。这表明NADH6基因在藏马高原适应进化过程中扮演着重要角色。此外,利用7匹藏马的D—loop区域序列以及与其亲缘关系较近的马的序列首次构建的藏马的系统发育树显示,那曲藏马与中甸、德钦藏马属于不同的分支,且存在较大的遗传多样性,表明藏马可能为多地区起源。     

Genome-Wide Detection of Copy Number Variations among Diverse Horse Breeds by Array CGH

Recent studies have found that copy number variations (CNVs) are widespread in human and animal genomes. CNVs are a significant source of genetic variation, and have been shown to be associated with phenotypic diversity. However, the effect of CNVs on genetic variation in horses is not well understood. In the present study, CNVs in 6 different breeds of mare horses, Mongolia horse, Abaga horse, Hequ horse and Kazakh horse (all plateau breeds) and Debao pony and Thoroughbred, were determined using aCGH. In total, seven hundred CNVs were identified ranging in size from 6.1 Kb to 0.57 Mb across all autosomes, with an average size of 43.08 Kb and a median size of 15.11 Kb. By merging overlapping CNVs, we found a total of three hundred and fifty-three CNV regions (CNVRs). The length of the CNVRs ranged from 6.1 Kb to 1.45 Mb with average and median sizes of 38.49 Kb and 13.1 Kb. Collectively, 13.59 Mb of copy number variation was identified among the horses investigated and accounted for approximately 0.61% of the horse genome sequence. Five hundred and eighteen annotated genes were affected by CNVs, which corresponded to about 2.26% of all horse genes. Through the gene ontology (GO), genetic pathway analysis and comparison of CNV genes among different breeds, we found evidence that CNVs involving 7 genes may be related to the adaptation to severe environment of these plateau horses. This study is the first report of copy number variations in Chinese horses, which indicates that CNVs are ubiquitous in the horse genome and influence many biological processes of the horse. These results will be helpful not only in mapping the horse whole-genome CNVs, but also to further research for the adaption to the high altitude severe environment for plateau horses.     

The intensity and efficiency of a gadfly attack on cattle depending on the number and location of the animals in the herd

The effect of group was studied on cattle being attacked by horse flies of three genera. The method of simultaneous registrations of attacking horse flies in herds of 8 to 100 animals and on single cows was used. It has been shown that the effect of group reveals itself only when animals in the herd reach a certain minimum number, the effect rate depending on peculiarities of attacking of a given species of bloodsuckers, such as a part of responding individuals, distance of an attack, duration of contact with an object. These parameters tend to change with increasing number of animals in the herd. Therefore differences in the intensity of attacks on herds with different cattle stock cannot be explained proceeding only from differences in the occupied areas. The number of attacking horse flies decreases from the periphery of the herd to its centre and is not the same in different parts of the periphery. The effectiveness of attacking, ie the part of sucking individuals of a given species (genus) from the number of horse flies attacking for a definite period of time, is the highest in a large herd and increases in its ranges from the periphery to the centre. This dependence leads to a more even distribution of sucking individuals as compared to attacking ones.     

The Visible,Sustainable Farm: A Comprehensive Energy Analysis of a Midwestern Farm

The Sunshine Farm, in central Kansas, offers a unique data set detailing all the inputs and outputs of a farming project intended to be based, as much as possible, on solar energy. Such a complete and detailed data set, encompassing more than 1.25 M data points for an 85-ha, 7-year project, has never before been compiled for any farm. The data show that important energy inputs that have thus far been left out of existing farm energy efficiency estimates, with implications for biofuels and other biomass for energy technologies. The SSF achieved energy efficiencies superior to conventional agriculture while maintaining soil health and delivering more nutritious, organic products. A first-ever analysis of the energy efficiency of horse traction shows that horses are significantly less energy efficient and much less labor efficient than tractors, although the horses in the study were clearly underutilized. An analysis of the farm removing all inputs and outputs relevant to the horses shows that without horses the Sunshine Farm would have been competitive with conventional energy efficiencies even taking into account the farm's higher labor inputs and small size.     

Peeling Back the Evolutionary Layers of Molecular Mechanisms Responsive to Exercise-Stress in the Skeletal Muscle of the Racing Horse

The modern horse (Equus caballus) is the product of over 50 million yrs of evolution. The athletic abilities of the horse have been enhanced during the past 6000 yrs under domestication. Therefore, the horse serves as a valuable model to understand the physiology and molecular mechanisms of adaptive responses to exercise. The structure and function of skeletal muscle show remarkable plasticity to the physical and metabolic challenges following exercise. Here, we reveal an evolutionary layer of responsiveness to exercise-stress in the skeletal muscle of the racing horse. We analysed differentially expressed genes and their co-expression networks in a large-scale RNA-sequence dataset comparing expression before and after exercise. By estimating genome-wide d_N/d_S ratios using six mammalian genomes, and F_ST and iHS using re-sequencing data derived from 20 horses, we were able to peel back the evolutionary layers of adaptations to exercise-stress in the horse. We found that the oldest and thickest layer (d_N/d_S) consists of system-wide tissue and organ adaptations. We further find that, during the period of horse domestication, the older layer (F_ST) is mainly responsible for adaptations to inflammation and energy metabolism, and the most recent layer (iHS) for neurological system process, cell adhesion, and proteolysis.     

European domestic horses originated in two holocene refugia

The role of European wild horses in horse domestication is poorly understood. While the fossil record for wild horses in Europe prior to horse domestication is scarce, there have been suggestions that wild populations from various European regions might have contributed to the gene pool of domestic horses. To distinguish between regions where domestic populations are mainly descended from local wild stock and those where horses were largely imported, we investigated patterns of genetic diversity in 24 European horse breeds typed at 12 microsatellite loci. The distribution of high levels of genetic diversity in Europe coincides with the distribution of predominantly open landscapes prior to domestication, as suggested by simulation-based vegetation reconstructions, with breeds from Iberia and the Caspian Sea region having significantly higher genetic diversity than breeds from central Europe and the UK, which were largely forested at the time the first domestic horses appear there. Our results suggest that not only the Eastern steppes, but also the Iberian Peninsula provided refugia for wild horses in the Holocene, and that the genetic contribution of these wild populations to local domestic stock may have been considerable. In contrast, the consistently low levels of diversity in central Europe and the UK suggest that domestic horses in these regions largely derive from horses that were imported from the Eastern refugium, the Iberian refugium, or both.     

Microstructural characteristics of hair of pleistocene mummy of “Bilibino horse” <Emphasis Type="Italic">Equus</Emphasis> sp.

The microstructure of hair of all mummified horses found in Northeastern Siberia has been studied for the first time in a comparative aspect by means of light optical and electron microscopy techniques. The possibility of using hair of horse mummies of different geological ages for a comparative analysis has been demonstrated. No fundamental differences were found in hair microstructure between the mummy of the “Bilibino” horse Equus sp. (geological age 58500 years) and mummified remains of the Lena horse Equus lenesis Russanov, 1968 (geological age 38 5000–29 500 years), which suggests their close relationship. It has been shown that morphological adaptations in the structure of the equine hair coat formed during the Pleistocene and Holocene under the specific climate conditions of Northeastern Siberia.     

Economic Benefit of Fertility Control in Wild Horse Populations

ABSTRACT I projected costs for several contraceptive treatments that could be used by the Bureau of Land Management (BLM) to manage 4 wild horse (Equus caballus) populations. Potential management alternatives included existing roundup and selective removal methods combined with contraceptives of different duration and effectiveness. I projected costs for a 20-year economic life using the WinEquus© wild horse population model and state-by-state cost estimates reflecting BLM's operational expenses. Findings revealed that 1) currently available 2-year contraceptives in most situations are capable of reducing variable operating costs by 15%, 2) experimental 3-year contraceptives may be capable of reducing costs by 18%, and 3) combining contraceptives with modest changes to herd sex ratio (e.g., 55–60% M) could trim costs by 30%. Predicted savings can increase when contraception is applied in conjunction with a removal policy that targets horses aged 0–4 years instead of 0–5 years. However, reductions in herd size result in greater variation in annual operating expenses. Because the horse program's variable operating costs make up about half of the total program costs (which include other fixed costs), contraceptive application and management can only reduce total costs by 14%, saving about $6.1 million per year. None of the contraceptive options I examined eliminated the need for long-term holding facilities over the 20-year period simulated, but the number of horses held may be reduced by about 17% with contraceptive treatment. Cost estimates were most sensitive to the oldest age adoptable and per-day holding costs. The BLM will experience significant cost savings as carefully designed contraceptive programs become widespread in the wild horse herds it manages.     

Gestation length variation in domesticated horses and its relation to breed and body size diversity

The domestication process and selective breeding reportedly alter some life history variables. In horses, it has been claimed that gestation length is particularly variable. Some of the factors influencing gestation length are already known and can be grouped into environmental and genetic factors, but the effects of breed and body size have rarely been evaluated. In this study we tested the influence of breed and body size on gestation length for 25 horse breeds from Central Europe. The mean gestation length for all breeds was 342.3 ± 10.2 days and we found significant differences among breeds with a variation of up to 11 days. Body size did not show a significant correlation with gestation length. Our data suggest that breed affiliation explains part of the large variability of gestation length in horses.     

Complete mitochondrial genome sequences of Korean native horse from Jeju Island: uncovering the spatio-temporal dynamics

The Korean native horse (Jeju horse) is one of the most important animals in Korean historical, cultural, and economical viewpoints. In the early 1980s, the Jeju horse was close to extinction. The aim of this study is to explore the phylogenomics of Korean native horse focusing on spatio-temporal dynamics. We determined complete mitochondrial genome sequences for the first Korean native (n?=?6) and additional Mongolian (n?=?2) horses. Those sequences were analyzed together with 143 published ones using Bayesian coalescent approach as well as three different phylogenetic analysis methods, Bayesian inference, maximum likelihood, and neighbor-joining methods. The phylogenomic trees revealed that the Korean native horses had multiple origins and clustered together with some horses from four European and one Middle Eastern breeds. Our phylogenomic analyses also supported that there was no apparent association between breed or geographic location and the evolution of global horses. Time of the most recent common ancestor of the Korean native horse was approximately 13,200–63,200 years, which was much younger than 0.696 My of modern horses. Additionally, our results showed that all global horse lineages including Korean native horse existed prior to their domestication events occurred in about 6000–10,000 years ago. This is the first study on phylogenomics of the Korean native horse focusing on spatio-temporal dynamics. Our findings increase our understanding of the domestication history of the Korean native horses, and could provide useful information for horse conservation projects as well as for horse genomics, emergence, and the geographical distribution.     

Radiographic closure time of appendicular growth plates in the Icelandic horse

Background  

The Icelandic horse is a pristine breed of horse which has a pure gene pool established more than a thousand years ago, and is approximately the same size as living and extinct wild breeds of horses. This study was performed to compare the length of the skeletal growth period of the "primitive" Icelandic horse relative to that reported for large horse breeds developed over the recent centuries. This information would provide practical guidance to owners and veterinarians as to when the skeleton is mature enough to commence training, and would be potentially interesting to those scientists investigating the pathogenesis of osteochondrosis. Interestingly, osteochondrosis has not been documented in the Icelandic horse.