3D Morphometric Analysis Reveals Similar Ecomorphs for Early Kangaroos (Macropodidae) and Fanged Kangaroos (Balbaridae) from the Riversleigh World Heritage Area,Australia

Understanding feeding ecology of extinct kangaroos is fundamental to understanding the evolution of kangaroos and the Australia paleoenvironment during the Oligo-Miocene. Comparisons with extant species have suggested that the macropodiforms of the Oligo/Miocene (kangaroos and allies) from the Riversleigh World Heritage Area, northern Australia, were predominantly folivorous browsers or fungivores, unlike the majority of extant species. To further test this hypothesis, we investigate the relationship between variation in cranial and mandibular shape of extant and extinct macropodiforms and ecological factors such as diet, locomotion, and body mass using 3D geometric morphometric analysis of 42 living species and eight extinct species from two radiations (the extinct clade of Balbaridae and some early representatives of the extant Macropodidae. Dietary class (fungivore, browser, grazer, and mixed feeder) correlated strongly with variation in cranial shape (20–25% of variance explained). There was also significant association between cranial shape, and both locomotor mode and body mass. In a principal component analysis of shape variation for crania (including the shape of the molar row), Riversleigh macropodiforms cluster with extant folivorous browsers on principal components (PC) 1 and 3, providing support for previous interpretations of these species as browsing kangaroos. However, as a group and regardless of phylogenetic association, the shape centroid of extinct species differs significantly from that of extant species. Riversleigh macropodiforms cluster with regular hoppers or arboreal tree kangaroos, but this may be a result of the correlation between diet and locomotor mode in kangaroos. Their similarity to extant browsers supports previous interpretations of rainforest and woodland environments at Riversleigh during the early and middle Miocene, respectively. Procrustes ANOVA Analysis of the full shape dataset and diet also shows that diet accounts for a significant portion of variation; however, when phylogeny is taken into account these results become nonsignificant. In analyses of dentary shape, some balbarid species cluster with extant mixed feeders, although this may reflect phylogenetic differences rather than ecological signal.

     

Ecogeographic size variation in small-bodied subfossil primates from Ankilitelo, southwestern Madagascar

Variation in body size is well documented for both extant and extinct Malagasy primates, and appears to be correlated with geographic patterns of resource seasonality. Less attention has been paid to extant lemurs in subfossil collections, although it has been suggested that subfossil forms of extant species are characterized by greater size than their modern counterpart. This trend of phyletic size change has been related to climate change, habitat fragmentation, or human hunting. However, space- and time-averaging in the subfossil samples of previous studies may have obscured more general ecogeographic patterns underlying these size differences. Our objective is to examine size variation in subfossil still-extant primates within a regional comparative context to determine if subfossil and living forms conform to similar ecogeographic patterns. We report on the subfossil still-extant primate assemblage from Ankilitelo, southwestern Madagascar (approximately 500 yr BP) to test this hypothesis. The Ankilitelo primates were compared with museum specimens of known locality. Extant taxa were assigned to one of five distinct ecogeographic regions, including spiny thicket, dry deciduous forest, succulent woodland, lowland and subhumid rainforest. Comparisons of tooth size in extant lemurs reveal significant geographical patterns of variation within genera. In general, the primates from Ankilitelo are indeed larger than their modern counterpart. However, these differences fit an ecoregional model of size variation, whereby Ankilitelo species are comparable in size to living forms inhabiting ecoregions present near the cave today. This suggests that Malagasy primates have been subjected to similar patterns of resource seasonality for at least 500 years.     

Candida glabrata, Candida parapsilosis and Candida tropicalis: biology, epidemiology, pathogenicity and antifungal resistance

The incidence of infections caused by Candida species (candidosis) has increased considerably over the past three decades, mainly due to the rise of the AIDS epidemic, an increasingly aged population, higher numbers of immunocompromised patients and the more widespread use of indwelling medical devices. Candida albicans is the main cause of candidosis; however, non-C. albicans Candida (NCAC) species such as Candida glabrata, Candida tropicalis and Candida parapsilosis are now frequently identified as human pathogens. The apparent increased emergence of these species as human pathogens can be attributed to improved identification methods and also associated with the degree of diseases of the patients, the interventions that they were subjected and the drugs used. Candida pathogenicity is facilitated by a number of virulence factors, most importantly adherence to host surfaces including medical devices, biofilm formation and secretion of hydrolytic enzymes (e.g. proteases, phospholipases and haemolysins). Furthermore, despite extensive research to identify pathogenic factors in fungi, particularly in C. albicans, relatively little is known about NCAC species. This review provides information on the current state of knowledge on the biology, identification, epidemiology, pathogenicity and antifungal resistance of C. glabrata, C. parapsilosis and C. tropicalis.     

Bridging two scholarly islands enriches both: COI DNA barcodes for species identification versus human mitochondrial variation for the study of migrations and pathologies

DNA barcodes for species identification and the analysis of human mitochondrial variation have developed as independent fields even though both are based on sequences from animal mitochondria. This study finds questions within each field that can be addressed by reference to the other. DNA barcodes are based on a 648‐bp segment of the mitochondrially encoded cytochrome oxidase I. From most species, this segment is the only sequence available. It is impossible to know whether it fairly represents overall mitochondrial variation. For modern humans, the entire mitochondrial genome is available from thousands of healthy individuals. SNPs in the human mitochondrial genome are evenly distributed across all protein‐encoding regions arguing that COI DNA barcode is representative. Barcode variation among related species is largely based on synonymous codons. Data on human mitochondrial variation support the interpretation that most – possibly all – synonymous substitutions in mitochondria are selectively neutral. DNA barcodes confirm reports of a low variance in modern humans compared to nonhuman primates. In addition, DNA barcodes allow the comparison of modern human variance to many other extant animal species. Birds are a well‐curated group in which DNA barcodes are coupled with census and geographic data. Putting modern human variation in the context of intraspecies variation among birds shows humans to be a single breeding population of average variance.     

Evaluation of the fossil fish‐specific diversity in a chadian continental assemblage: Exploration of morphological continuous variation in Synodontis (Ostariophysi,Siluriformes)

In the fossil record, the quantification of continuous morphological variation has become a central issue when dealing with species identification and speciation. In this context, fossil taxa with living representatives hold great promise, because of the potential to characterise patterns of intraspecific morphological variation in extant species prior to any interpretation in the fossil record. The vast majority of catfish families fulfil this prerequisite, as most of them are represented by extant genera. However, although they constitute a major fish group in terms of distribution, and ecological and taxonomic diversity, the quantitative study of their past morphological variation has been neglected, as fossil specimens are generally identified based on the scarcest remains, that is, complete neurocrania that bear discrete characters. Consequently, a part of freshwater catfish history is unprospected and unknown. In this study, we explored the morphological continuous variation of the humeral plate shape in Synodontis catfishes using Elliptic Fourier Analysis (EFA), and compared extant members and fossil counterparts. We analysed 153 extant specimens of 11 Synodontis species present in the Chad basin, in addition to 23 fossil specimens from the Chadian fossiliferous area of Toros Menalla which is dated around 7 Ma. This highly speciose genus, which is one of the most diversified in Africa, exhibits a rich fossil record with several hundred remains mostly identified as Synodontis sp. The analysis of the outline of the humeral plate reveals that some living morphological types were already represented in the Chad Basin 7 My ago, and allows for the discovery of extinct species. Beside illuminating the complex Neogene evolutionary history of Synodontis, these results underline the interest in the ability of isolated remains to reconstruct a past dynamic history and to validate the relevance of EFA as a tool to explore specific diversity through time. J. Morphol. 277:1486–1496, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Mandibular size and shape variation in the hominins at Dmanisi, Republic of Georgia

The hominin fossils of Dmanisi, Republic of Georgia, present an ideal means of assessing levels of skeletal size and shape variation in a fossil hypodigm belonging to the genus Homo because they have been recovered from a spatially and temporally restricted context. We compare variation in mandible size and shape at Dmanisi to that of extant hominoids and extinct hominins. We use height and breadth measurements of the mandibular corpus at the first molar and the symphysis to assess size, and analyze shape based on size-adjusted (using a geometric mean) versions of these four variables. We compare size and shape variation at Dmanisi relative to all possible pairs of individuals within each comparative taxon using an exact resampling procedure of the ratio of D2600 to D211 and the average Euclidean distance (AED) between D2600 and D211, respectively. Comparisons to extant hominoids were conducted at both the specific and subspecific taxonomic levels and to extinct hominins by adopting both a more, and less speciose, hominin taxonomy. Results indicate that the pattern of variation for the Dmanisi hominins does not resemble that of any living species: they exhibit significantly more size variation when compared to modern humans, and they have significantly more corpus shape variation and size variation in corpus heights and overall mandible size than any extant ape species. When compared to fossil hominins they are also more dimorphic in size (although this result is influenced by the taxonomic hypothesis applied to the hominin fossil record). These results highlight the need to re-examine expectations of levels of sexual dimorphism in members of the genus Homo and to account for marked size and shape variation between D2600 and D211 under the prevailing view of a single hominin species at Dmanisi.     

The Macroevolution of our Ancient Lineage: What We Know (or Think We Know) about Early Hominin Diversity

Quantitative, evolutionary models that incorporate within- and between-species variation are critical for interpreting the fossil record of human diversity, and for making taxonomic distinctions. However, small sample sizes, sexual dimorphism, temporal trends, geographic variation, and the limited number of relevant extant models have always made the consideration of variation difficult for paleoanthropologists. Here we provide a brief overview of current early hominin diversity. We then argue that for many species our limited understanding of within species variation hampers our ability to make taxonomic decisions with any level of statistical certainty. Perhaps more significantly, the underlying causes of between-species variation among early hominins are poorly studied. There have been few attempts to correlate aspects of the phenotype with meaningful evidence for niche differentiation, to demonstrate the selective advantage of traits, or to provide other evidence for macroevolutionary divergence. Moreover, current depictions of vast pattern (but not size) diversity are inconsistent with expectations derived from most other extant primate clades that have adaptively radiated. If indeed the early hominin record is highly speciose, the reasons for this remain unclear.     

Candida albicans cell wall glycans, host receptors and responses: elements for a decisive crosstalk

Candida albicans has adapted to live on the mucosal surfaces of animals. The human species has accepted it. By contrast to numerous other commensals, C. albicans has a prominent ability to invade virtually all tissues of a host presenting with natural or acquired defects in homeostasis. C. albicans uses considerable energy to synthesize glycans, which are present either as polymers or as glyconjugates. These glycan molecules play a prominent role in the biology of C. albicans by controlling the structure and plasticity of the cell wall, and are also involved in yeast-host interactions. These glycans are recognized as 'non-self' by host innate and adaptative immunity. The signal they induce in the host depends on the 'glycan code', which is determined by the nature of the sugar, the anomer type of linkage and branching, and the length of the oligosaccharide chains. However, this model is not static because the nature of the C. albicans molecule carrying such glycan codes and their expression at the cell wall surface also determines the host response, and, in turn, the regulation of cell wall glycan arrangement dynamics in C. albicans depends on host stimuli. Candida glycans therefore play an important role in the continuous interchange that regulates the balance between saprophytism and parasitism, and resistance and infection. A goal of current research concerning the virulence attributes of C. albicans will be to determine to what extent this species is able to regulate its glycan code as a response to the host.     

Digit ratios predict polygyny in early apes, Ardipithecus, Neanderthals and early modern humans but not in Australopithecus

Social behaviour of fossil hominoid species is notoriously difficult to predict owing to difficulties in estimating body size dimorphism from fragmentary remains and, in hominins, low canine size dimorphism. Recent studies have shown that the second-to-fourth digit ratio (2D : 4D), a putative biomarker for prenatal androgen effects (PAEs), covaries with intra-sexual competition and social systems across haplorrhines; non-pair-bonded polygynous taxa have significantly lower 2D : 4D ratios (high PAE) than pair-bonded monogamous species. Here, we use proximal phalanx ratios of extant and fossil specimens to reconstruct the social systems of extinct hominoids. Pierolapithecus catalaunicus, Hispanopithecus laietanus and Ardipithecus ramidus have ratios consistent with polygynous extant species, whereas the ratio of Australopithecus afarensis is consistent with monogamous extant species. The early anatomically modern human Qafzeh 9 and Neanderthals have lower digit ratios than most contemporary human populations, indicating increased androgenization and possibly higher incidence of polygyny. Although speculative owing to small sample sizes, these results suggest that digit ratios represent a supplementary approach for elucidating the social systems of fossil hominins.     

Comparison of the epidemiology, drug resistance mechanisms, and virulence of Candida dubliniensis and Candida albicans

Candida dubliniensis is a pathogenic yeast species that was first identified as a distinct taxon in 1995. Epidemiological studies have shown that C. dubliniensis is prevalent throughout the world and that it is primarily associated with oral carriage and oropharyngeal infections in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected and acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) patients. However, unlike Candida albicans, C. dubliniensis is rarely found in the oral microflora of normal healthy individuals and is responsible for as few as 2% of cases of candidemia (compared to approximately 65% for C. albicans). The vast majority of C. dubliniensis isolates identified to date are susceptible to all of the commonly used antifungal agents, however, reduced susceptibility to azole drugs has been observed in clinical isolates and can be readily induced in vitro. The primary mechanism of fluconazole resistance in C. dubliniensis has been shown to be overexpression of the major facilitator efflux pump Mdr1p. It has also been observed that a large number of C. dubliniensis strains express a non-functional truncated form of Cdr1p, and it has been demonstrated that this protein does not play a significant role in fluconazole resistance in the majority of strains examined to date. Data from a limited number of infection models reflect findings from epidemiological studies and suggest that C. dubliniensis is less pathogenic than C. albicans. The reasons for the reduced virulence of C. dubliniensis are not clear as it has been shown that the two species express a similar range of virulence factors. However, although C. dubliniensis produces hyphae, it appears that the conditions and dynamics of induction may differ from those in C. albicans. In addition, C. dubliniensis is less tolerant of environmental stresses such as elevated temperature and NaCl and H(2)O(2) concentration, suggesting that C. albicans may have a competitive advantage when colonising and causing infection in the human body. It is our hypothesis that a genomic comparison between these two closely-related species will help to identify virulence factors responsible for the far greater virulence of C. albicans and possibly identify factors that are specifically implicated in either superficial or systemic candidal infections.     

Genetics of Candida albicans.

Candida albicans is among the most common fungal pathogens. Infections caused by C. albicans and other Candida species can be life threatening in individuals with impaired immune function. Genetic analysis of C. albicans pathogenesis is complicated by the diploid nature of the species and the absence of a known sexual cycle. Through a combination of parasexual techniques and molecular approaches, an effective genetic system has been developed. The close relationship of C. albicans to the more extensively studied Saccharomyces cerevisiae has been of great utility in the isolation of Candida genes and development of the C. albicans DNA transformation system. Molecular methods have been used for clarification of taxonomic relationships and more precise epidemiologic investigations. Analysis of the physical and genetic maps of C. albicans and the closely related Candida stellatoidea has provided much information on the highly fluid nature of the Candida genome. The genetic system is seeing increased application to biological questions such as drug resistance, virulence determinants, and the phenomenon of phenotypic variation. Although most molecular analysis to data has been with C. albicans, the same methodologies are proving highly effective with other Candida species.     

Genetics of Candida albicans.

Candida albicans is among the most common fungal pathogens. Infections caused by C. albicans and other Candida species can be life threatening in individuals with impaired immune function. Genetic analysis of C. albicans pathogenesis is complicated by the diploid nature of the species and the absence of a known sexual cycle. Through a combination of parasexual techniques and molecular approaches, an effective genetic system has been developed. The close relationship of C. albicans to the more extensively studied Saccharomyces cerevisiae has been of great utility in the isolation of Candida genes and development of the C. albicans DNA transformation system. Molecular methods have been used for clarification of taxonomic relationships and more precise epidemiologic investigations. Analysis of the physical and genetic maps of C. albicans and the closely related Candida stellatoidea has provided much information on the highly fluid nature of the Candida genome. The genetic system is seeing increased application to biological questions such as drug resistance, virulence determinants, and the phenomenon of phenotypic variation. Although most molecular analysis to data has been with C. albicans, the same methodologies are proving highly effective with other Candida species.     

Genetic variation in time and space: the use of herbarium specimens to reconstruct patterns of genetic variation in the endangered orchid Anacamptis palustris

Habitat alteration, fragmentation and destruction as a consequence of human impact are a global phenomenon. Here we document changes in genetic variation in the marsh orchid Anacamptis palustris as a consequence of such habitat changes. We examined historical specimens that were collected during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, prior to the most recent massive habitat changes affecting this species. Sequences of a hypervariable region in the plastid DNA, located in the tRNA^LEU intron, from herbarium vouchers were compared with those from a near-exhaustive survey of the extant A. palustris populations on the Italian peninsula. It was found that private haplotypes and alleles found in small, extant populations were once widespread and more common in historic populations and that alleles, once present in historic populations, have gone extinct. In addition, genetic differentiation among populations has increased over time and haplotype frequencies significantly differ among historic and extant populations. These results document that human induced habitat changes have reduced genetic diversity and increased the importance of random genetic drift in this species. It is concluded that the analysis of herbarium specimens may provide important insights into changes of genetic diversity over time and may be critical for correct inference of the evolutionary history of rare and endangered species.     

甘肃临夏盆地晚中新世鬣狗类群头骨的几何形态测量学及生态形态学分析(英文)

在晚新生代大型食肉目动物中,鬣狗科动物地史分布广、种类和数量多,在中国出现于中中新世至更新世晚期的地层中。形态功能学家将鬣狗科的60多个化石种分为似豺、似狼和似灵猫等生态类群,这些生态类群和现生仅存的3个食骨和1个食虫类群形成鲜明的对比。生态形态学是基于生物形态与生态环境的密切关系研究不同物种形态所代表的生态位的一种方法;研究者依靠化石鬣狗类与现生种类牙齿和头骨整体形态的相似度进行了生态形态(ecomorphology)的分类,但尚未对这些已定的生态形态进行过多变量的头骨形状分析。本文拟采用平面几何形态测量学的方法对晚中新世临夏盆地的鬣狗类进行研究,并探讨以头骨形状划分其生态形态类型的可行性。几何形态测量法是以生物形态的轮廓作为数据的计算方法,虽然目前尚未被国内古生物研究者广泛采用,但自20世纪30年代多变量统计学的理论成熟以来,这一方法的理论基础和软件算法在国外得到迅速发展,至今已成为近代生物学(neontology)和古生物学形态研究领域的一个常用工具。三维几何形态测量分析也因为三维激光扫描仪的普及而变得更简单和直观。然而,化石标本由于埋藏和保存的关系通常会出现变形或残缺不全,使目前几何形态测量方法在古生物学的应用仍主要以平面数据分析为主。平面数据采集的第一步是从与标本某一平面相垂直的角度拍摄数码照片;虽然拍摄平面的选择通常由研究者自定,但一般会选择待研究类群形状变异最具代表性的一面(如,鱼类一般选取侧视)。第二步是形态的数字化,即使用某一种形态测量软件来标出地标点(landmarks;或称界标点、标志点、标点)。地标点的选择对于分析的结果有直接而且重要的影响,一般会选择Bookstein分类中的I型或II型作为地标点的标准。这两种地标点的共同点是可以从解剖学特征上准确地在每一个标本上找到,而无不明确或复现困难的可能性。数字化后的数据在软件中用数学算法叠加起来(superimposition,或称叠合,重叠),以去除原始图片数据中标本位置、角度及其他与几何形态无关的冗余信息。所有的数字化数据叠加起来后,利用软件计算所有标本之间的几何距离。现在常用的软件中都会以平均几何形状作为中心,而且利用类似主成分分析(principal components analysis)的多变量计算来呈现相对扭曲(或称相对反卷)轴(relative warp axis),后者即是可以用来把形态差异视觉化的多变量数据。这些数据可以用平面坐标图来看不同形态的空间分布,也可以用所谓的薄板样条曲线图(thin-plate spline grid)来表示相对形态上的变化。相对扭曲轴所代表的形状数据还经常被拿来与代表几何物体大小的距心值(或称重心距离,centroid size)做回归曲线分析,以便发现种群中某些形态的异速生长模式(allometry)。本文采用几何形态测量的方法对产自和政地区的鬣狗科Hyaenictitherium,Ictitherium,Adcrocuta和旁鬣狗科Dinocrocuta的材料进行研究,分析了这4个属保存完好的头骨标本的侧面形态。与东非大草原现生食肉动物的头骨整体形态分布的比较和分析表明,和政的鼬鬣狗(Ictitherium)和鬣型鼬鬣狗(Hyaenictitherium)的头骨形状分布介于现生斑鬣狗(Crocuta crocuta)、犬科猎狗(Lycaon pictus)和金豺(Canis aureus)之间,为二者似豺生态形态的解释提供了几何形态测量证据。再者,上述两属化石鬣狗的形状分布与现生斑鬣狗的幼年个体形状重叠,表明现生斑鬣狗头骨的发育机制可能是在鼬鬣狗祖先类型的异速生长规律基础上的持续发育,进而演化出现有的粗壮形态。此外,巨鬣狗(Dinocrocuta)和副鬣狗(Adcrocuta)的头骨形状与现生的斑鬣狗在几何形态测量空间内有普遍重叠的现象,指示了这些异时出现的种类具有相似的生态形态,因而可能占据相近的生态位。结果还显示巨鬣狗和斑鬣狗的幼年个体形状相近,以及两者从幼年到成年发育的形状变化过程也具有相似的规律。因而,巨鬣狗和斑鬣狗之间的趋同演化不仅表现在成年头骨的粗壮程度上,而且在幼年发育模式中也存在平行演化现象。现生发育学与行为生态学已经证实,相对其他大型食肉动物,现生斑鬣狗发育粗壮头骨形态的机制不是以增速生长,而是以延长发育期来实现的。由此推断,巨鬣狗的发育期有可能和现生鬣狗相当(35个月),也可能由于具有相对粗壮和巨大的头骨形态,其发育期会延长些。当然,这个新解释仍需要更多的化石数据和发育研究来证实。     

Comparative application of the coefficient of variation and range-based statistics for assessing the taxonomic composition of fossil samples

Dental variation has been used commonly to assess taxonomic composition in morphologically homogeneous fossil samples. While the coefficient of variation (CV) has been used traditionally, range-based measures of variation, such as the range as a percentage of the mean (R%) and the maximum/minimum index (I_max/min) have recently become popular alternatives. The current study compares the performance of these statistics when applied to single- and pooled-species dental samples of extant Cercopithecus species. A common methodology for such problems of species discrimination has been to simply compare the maximum value of a variation statistic observed in extant samples with that observed in the fossil sample. However, regardless of what statistic is used, this approach has an unknowable Type I error rate, and usually has low power to detect multiple species. A more appropriate method involves a formal hypothesis test. The null hypothesis is that the level of variation in the fossil sample does not exceed what might be expected in a sample drawn randomly from a reference population, taking into account sampling error and the size of the fossil sample. Previous research using this method with the CV has indicated that it offers considerable power at an acceptable Type I error rate. In the current study, the data of primary interest were posterior dental dimensions for single- and pooled species samples from extant Cercopithecus species. In addition, the study also investigated the relative performance of variation statistics when applied to highly dimorphic canine dimensions, since much recent work has employed sexually dimorphic dental dimensions for assessing single-species hypotheses. The results indicate that the CV consistently out-performed the range-based statistics when using posterior dental dimensions to test a single-species hypothesis. Regardless of which statistic was used, tests on sexually dimorphic dimensions offered minimal power. In consideration of these results and the problem of studywise Type I error rates, we recommend against the use of multiple measures of variation to test for multiple species composition, and advocate the CV as the statistic of choice when using the method of Cope & Lacy (1992). For similar reasons, we argue for careful selection of dental variables for inclusion in such analyses, and in particular recommend against including sexually dimorphic dimensions when testing for multiple species composition.     

Ancient origin and gene mosaicism of the progenitor of Mycobacterium tuberculosis

The highly successful human pathogen Mycobacterium tuberculosis has an extremely low level of genetic variation, which suggests that the entire population resulted from clonal expansion following an evolutionary bottleneck around 35,000 y ago. Here, we show that this population constitutes just the visible tip of a much broader progenitor species, whose extant representatives are human isolates of tubercle bacilli from East Africa. In these isolates, we detected incongruence among gene phylogenies as well as mosaic gene sequences, whose individual elements are retrieved in classical M. tuberculosis. Therefore, despite its apparent homogeneity, the M. tuberculosis genome appears to be a composite assembly resulting from horizontal gene transfer events predating clonal expansion. The amount of synonymous nucleotide variation in housekeeping genes suggests that tubercle bacilli were contemporaneous with early hominids in East Africa, and have thus been coevolving with their human host much longer than previously thought. These results open novel perspectives for unraveling the molecular bases of M. tuberculosis evolutionary success.     

A simulation test of hominoid species number at Lufeng, China: implications for the use of the coefficient of variation in paleotaxonomy

High dental metric variation in the large hominoid sample from the late Miocene site of Lufeng, China has been interpreted in two ways: (1) there are two morphologically similar species that broadly overlap in size, and (2) there is one species that is more highly sexually dimorphic in dental size, and perhaps in body size, than any extant primate. It has been claimed that the high levels of dental metric variation falsify the single-species hypothesis, which has been viewed implicitly as corroboration of the two-species hypothesis. However, the two-species hypothesis has not been subjected to testing. Here we test the two-species hypothesis using computer simulations to attempt to reproduce the unusual pattern of intrasexual and intersexual dental metric variation observed in the Lufeng postcanine dentition. Conditions of the simulation experiments were optimized to favor the two-species hypothesis. It was found that, although the Lufeng pattern of metric variation could be reproduced by sampling two species, the likelihood of this occurrence was very low even when the conditions were optimized to the point of improbability. We conclude that the likelihood is very high that the Lufeng sample is composed of one species that is more highly sexually dimorphic in the postcanine dentition than any extent primate species. If so, then the high levels of sexual dimorphism and intraspecific dental metric variation in this species violate the central assumption of methods that employ the coefficient of variation (CV) for paleotaxonomy, namely, that neither can lie outside the ranges observed among extant species. Thus, we further conclude that the CV must be used with caution when evaluating the taxonomic composition of fossil samples and, further, that it cannot be used to falsify a single-species hypothesis in any meaningful way. Other fossil hominoid samples with high measures of dental variation may indicate that considerable sexual size dimorphism typified many Eurasian middle–late Miocene hominoids.     

A comparison of cortical elastic properties in the craniofacial skeletons of three primate species and its relevance to the study of human evolution

When a force is applied to an object, the resulting pattern of strain is a function of both the object's geometry and its elastic properties. Thus, knowledge of elastic properties in craniofacial cortical bone is indispensable for exploring the biomechanics and adaptation of primate skulls. However, elastic properties, such as density and stiffness, cannot be measured in all species, particularly extinct species known only from fossils. In order for advanced engineering techniques such as finite element analysis (FEA) to be applied to questions of primate and hominid craniofacial functional morphology, it is important to understand interspecific patterns of variation in elastic properties. We hypothesized that closely related species would have similar patterns of bone elastic properties, and that similarities with extant species should allow reasonable predictions of elastic properties in the skeletons of extinct primate species. In this study, we tested this hypothesis by measuring elastic properties in five areas of the external cortex of the baboon craniofacial skeleton using an ultrasonic technique, and by comparing the results to existing data from macaque and human crania. Results showed that cortical density, thickness, elastic and shear moduli, and anisotropy varied among areas in the baboon cranium. Similar variation had previously been found in rhesus and human crania, suggesting area-specific elastic patterns in the skulls of each species. Comparison among species showed differences, suggesting species-specific patterns. These patterns were more similar between macaques and baboons for density, maximum elastic and shear stiffness, and anisotropy than between either of these and humans. This finding demonstrates that patterns of cortical elastic properties are generally similar in closely related primate species with similar craniofacial morphology. Thus, reasonable estimates of cortical bone elastic properties should be possible for extinct species through the study of phylogenetically related and functionally similar modern forms. For example, reasonable elastic property estimates of cortical bone from fossil hominid skulls should be possible once adequate information about such properties in extant great apes is added to our current data from humans, macaques, and baboons. Such data should eventually allow FEA of craniofacial function in fossil hominids.