Structural identification of the iipo-chitin oligosaccharide nodulation signals of Rhizobium loti

Rhizobium loti is a fast-growing Rhizobium species that has been described as a microsymbiont of plants of the genus Lotus. Nodulation studies show that Lotus plants are nodulated by R loti, but not by most other Rhizobium strains, indicating that R. loti produces specific lipo-chitin oligosaccharides (LCOs) which are necessary for the nodulation of Lotus plants. The LCOs produced by five different Rhizobium ioti strains have been purified and were shown to be N-acetylglucosamine pentasaccharides of which the non-reducing residue is N-methylated and N-acylated with c/s-vaccenic acid (C18:1) or stearic acid (C18:O) and carries a carbamoyl group. In one R. loti strain, NZP2037, an additional carbamoyl group is present on the non-reducing terminal residue. The major class of LCO molecules is substituted on the reducing terminal residue with 4-O-acetylfucose. Addition of LCOs to the roots of Lotus plants results in abundant distortion, swelling and branching of the root hairs, whereas spot inoculation leads to the formation of nodule primordia.     

Induction of nodule primordia on Phaseolus and Acacia by lipo-chitin oligosaccharide nodulation signals from broad-host-range Rhizobium strain GRH2

Rhizobium wild-type strain GRH2 was originally isolated from the tree, Acacia cyanophylla, and has a broad host-range which includes herbaceous legumes, such as Phaseolus and Trifolium species. Here we show that strains of Rhizobium sp. GRH2, into which heterologous nodD alleles have been introduced, produce a large diversity of both sulphated and non-sulphated lipo-chitin oligosaccharides (LCOs). Most of the molecular species contain an N-methyl group on the reducing-terminal N-acetyl-glucosamine. The LCOs vary in the nature of the fatty acyl chain and in the length of the chitin backbone. The majority of the LCOs have an olgosaccharide chain length of five GlcNAc residues, but a few are oligomers having six GlcNAc units. LCOs purified from GRH2 are able to induce root hair formation and deformation on Acacia cyanophylla and A. melanoxylon plants. We show that an N-vaccenoyl-chitopentaose bearing an N-methyl group is able to induce nodule primordia on Phaseolus vulgaris, A. cyanophylla, and A. melanoxylon, indicating that for these plants an N-methyl modification is sufficient for nodule primordia induction.     

Presence of Rhizobium Etli bv . Phaseoli and Rhizobium Gallicum bv . Gallicum in Egyptian Soils

Seven bean rhizobial strains EBRI 2, 3, 21, 24, 26, 27 and 29 identified as Rhizobium etli, and EBRI 32 identified as Rhizobium gallicum, isolated from Egyptian soils and which nodulated Phaseolus vulgaris efficiently, were subjected to hybridization with a nifH probe in order to estimate the copy number of this gene. Seven strains (EBRI 2, 3, 21, 24, 26, 27 and 29) which were only able to nodulate Phaseolus vulgaris, contained three copies of the nifH gene, consistent with their identification as Rhizobium etli bv. phaseoli. Only one strain (EBRI 32) which nodulated both Phaseolus vulgaris and Leucaena leucocephala, had one copy of nifH gene. This confirmed the classification of this strain as Rhizobium gallicum bv. gallicum.     

Phage sensitivity and host range of Rhizobium strains isolated from root nodules of temperate legumes

Twenty-five Rhizobium strains were isolated from root nodules of Astragalus spp. (10), Hedysarum alpinum (7), Glycyrrhiza pallidiflora (3) and Ononis arvensis (5). The sensitivity of these strains to bacteriophages of Rhizobium loti, R. meliloti, R. galegae and R. leguminosarum was studied. Phages specific to R. loti strains were shown to induce the phage lysis of several Astragalus, Hedysarum and Ononis rhizobia. Ten R. loti strains tested for nodulation abilities on the plant hosts under investigation were able to develop nitrogen-fixing nodules on the Ononis arvensis roots. On the other hand, rhizobia from Ononis and Glycyrrhiza could form an effective symbiosis with Lotus corniculatus plants, so these bacteria are considered to belong to the Rhizobium loti taxon. Bacterial strains isolated from Astragalus and Hedysarum were observed to cross-nodulate their plant hosts as well as Oxytropis campestris, Glycyrrhiza uralensis and Ononis arvensis plants, whereas they could not nodulate Lotus plants. It is concluded that these Rhizobium strains comprise a cross-inoculation group related to Rhizobium loti. ei]{gnR O D}{fnDixon}     

Ensifer meliloti bv. lancerottense establishes nitrogen-fixing symbiosis with Lotus endemic to the Canary Islands and shows distinctive symbiotic genotypes and host range

Eleven strains were isolated from root nodules of Lotus endemic to the Canary Islands and they belonged to the genus Ensifer, a genus never previously described as a symbiont of Lotus. According to their 16S rRNA and atpD gene sequences, two isolates represented minority genotypes that could belong to previously undescribed Ensifer species, but most of the isolates were classified within the species Ensifer meliloti. These isolates nodulated Lotus lancerottensis, Lotus corniculatus and Lotus japonicus, whereas Lotus tenuis and Lotus uliginosus were more restrictive hosts. However, effective nitrogen fixation only occurred with the endemic L. lancerottensis. The E. meliloti strains did not nodulate Medicago sativa, Medicago laciniata Glycine max or Glycine soja, but induced non-fixing nodules on Phaseolus vulgaris roots. nodC and nifH symbiotic gene phylogenies showed that the E. meliloti symbionts of Lotus markedly diverged from strains of Mesorhizobium loti, the usual symbionts of Lotus, as well as from the three biovars (bv. meliloti, bv. medicaginis, and bv. mediterranense) so far described within E. meliloti. Indeed, the nodC and nifH genes from the E. meliloti isolates from Lotus represented unique symbiotic genotypes. According to their symbiotic gene sequences and host range, the Lotus symbionts would represent a new biovar of E. meliloti for which bv. lancerottense is proposed.     

Nodulation and Nitrogen Fixation Efficacy of Rhizobium fredii with Phaseolus vulgaris Genotypes

Phaseolus plant introduction (PI) genotypes (consisting of 684 P. vulgaris, 26 P. acutifolius, 39 P. lunatus, and 5 P. coccineus accessions) were evaluated for their ability to form effective symbioses with strains of six slow-growing (Bradyrhizobium) and four fast-growing (Rhizobium fredii) soybean rhizobia. Of the 684 P. vulgaris genotypes examined, three PIs were found to form effective nitrogen-fixing symbioses with the R. fredii strains. While none of the Bradyrhizobium strains nodulated any of the genotypes tested, some produced large numbers of undifferentiated root proliferations (hypertrophies). A symbiotic plasmid-cured R. fredii strain failed to nodulate the P. vulgaris PIs and cultivars, suggesting that P. vulgaris host range genes are Sym plasmid borne in the fast-growing soybean rhizobia.     

Different species and symbiotic genotypes of field rhizobia can nodulate Phaseolus vulgaris in Tunisian soils

A collection of 160 isolates of rhizobia nodulating Phaseolus vulgaris in three geographical regions in Tunisia was characterized by restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis of polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-amplified 16S rDNA, nifH and nodC genes. Nine groups of rhizobia were delineated: Rhizobium gallicum biovar (bv.) gallicum, Rhizobium leguminosarum bv. phaseoli and bv. viciae, Rhizobium etli bv. phaseoli, Rhizobium giardinii bv. giardinii, and four groups related to species of the genus Sinorhizobium, Sinorhizobium meliloti, Sinorhizobium medicae and Sinorhizobium fredii. The most abundant rhizobial species were R. gallicum, R. etli, and R. leguminosarum encompassing 29–20% of the isolates each. Among the isolates assigned to R. leguminosarum, two-thirds were ineffective in nitrogen fixation with P. vulgaris and harbored a symbiotic gene typical of the biovar viciae. The S. fredii-like isolates did not nodulate soybean plants but formed numerous effective nodules on P. vulgaris. Comparison of nodC gene sequences showed that their symbiotic genotype was not related to that of S. fredii, but to that of the S. fredii-like reference strain GR-06, which was isolated from a bean plant grown in a Spanish soil. An additional genotype including 16% of isolates was found to be closely related to species of the genus Agrobacterium. However, when re-examined, these isolates did not nodulate their original host.     

Ability of selected accessions of Phaseolus vulgaris L. to restrict nodulation by particular rhizobia

Plant genotypes that limit nodulation by indigenous rhizobia while nodulating normally with inoculant-strain nodule occupancy in Phaseolus vulgaris. In this study, eight of nine Rhizobium tropici strains and six of 15 Rhizobium etli strains examined, showed limited ability to nodulate and fix nitrogen with the two wild P. vulgaris genotypes G21117 and G10002, but were effective in symbiosis with the cultivated bean genotypes Jamapa and Amarillo Gigante. Five of the R. etli strains restricted in nodulation by G21117 and G10002 produced an alkaline reaction in yeast mannitol medium. In a competition experiment in which restricted strains were tested in 1:1 mixtures with the highly effective R. etli strain CIAT632, the restricted strains produced a low percentage of the nodules formed on G2117, but produced over 40% of the nodules formed on Jamapa. The interaction of the four Rhizobium strains with the two bean genotypes, based on the percentage of nodules formed, was highly significant (P<0.001).     

Effect of moisture and salt stress on selectedRhizobium phaseoli strains

Summary Studies in Rossmoyne silt loam by the plate count (PC) and fluorescent antibody (FA) techniques showed that flooding had no detrimental effects on survival and N₂-fixing capacity ofR. phaseoli strains. Short-term flooding apparently stimulated the activity of the bacteria, as indicated by the increase in nodulation and yield ofPhaseolus vulgaris. The strains also differed in their ability to survive desiccation, and a decline in the population of all strains occurred at moisture tensions greater than 15 bars. The inhibitory concentrations of salts to growth ofR. phaseoli in solution were 0.3% for Na and K chlorides and 1.0% for Ca and Mg chlorides. The effects of Na and K sulphates were similar to the Na and K chlorides at 0.3% except for strain C-05 which was inhibited by 0.1% Na sulphate. Comparative growth averaged over all strains grown with 0.1% salts showed that the degree of inhibition was the same for both chloride and sulphate salts but that Na salts showed the greatest, and Mg salts the least, inhibition. It was concluded that some strains ofR. phaseoli can survive soil flooding, desiccation, and salt stress in large enough numbers to initiate nodule formation in some soils.

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Resumen Estudios realizados en Rossmoyne, en suelos de tipo limoso, ricos en materia orgánica han mostrado mediante técnicas de conteo en placa (PC) y de anticuerpos fluorescentes (FA) que la inundación de campos no iba en detrimento de la supervivencia y de la capacidad de fijación de N₂ de algunas cepas deR. phaseoli. La actividad de las bacterias parece verse estimulada por inundaciones de corta duración según se deduce del incremento en la nodulación y en la cosecha dePhaseolus vulgaris. Las distintas cepas mostraron diferencias en su habilidad para sobrevivir a la sequía, observándose una disminución en la población de todas las cepas a tensiones superiores a 15 bars. Las sales en disolución inhibieron el crecimiento deR. phaseoli a las concentraciones siguientes: 0.3% para los cloruros de Na y K, y 0.1% para los cloruros de Ca y Mg. Los efectos de los sulfatos de Na y K a una concentración de 0.3% fueron similares a los observados para los cloruros, excepto para el caso de la cepa C-05 que fue inhibida por 0.1% de sulfato de Na. El crecimiento medio, comparativo, de todas las cepas en un medio con un 0.1% de sales mostró que cloruros y sulfatos tenían un mismo grado de inhibición y que las sales de Na tenían el mayor efecto inhibidor, teniendo las de Mg el menor.

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Résumé Des études effectuées sur la terre limoneuse de Rossmoyne par les techniques de numération sur gélose (PC) et d'anticorps fluorescents (FA) ont montré que l'inondation n'a pas d'effet défavorable sur la survie et la capacité à fixer l'azote de certaines souches deR. phaseoli. Une brève inondation du sol parait stimuler l'activité des bactéries, comme l'indique le fait que la nodulation et le rendement dePhaseolus vulgaris sont accrus. L'aptitude des souches à survivre à la dessication est variable. D'autre part, les populations de toutes les souches diminuent lorsque la tension d'humidité dépasse 15 bars. Les concentrations salines inhibant la croissance deR. phaseoli en milieu liquide sont de 0,3% pour le chlorure de Na et de K, et de 0,1% pour le chlorure de Ca et de Mg. Les sulfates de Na et de K sont, comme les chlorures, inhibiteurs à la concentration de 0,3%, sauf dans le cas de la souche C-05 qui est inhibée par 0,1% de sulfate de Na. A la concentration de 0,1%, les chlorures et les sulfates exercent le même degré d'inhibition sur toutes les souches, mais les sels de Na sont plus inhibiteurs que ceux de Mg. En conclusion, certaines souches deR. phaseoli peuvent survivre à l'inondation, à la dessication et à l'action des sels en nombres suffisants pour initier la formation de nodules.

     

A Rhizobium tropici DNA region carrying the amino-terminal half of a nodD gene and a nod-box-like sequence confers host-range extension

Rhizobium tropici CIAT899 is a broad-host-range strain that, in addition to Phaseolus, nodulates other plant legumes such as Leucaena and Macroptilium. The narrow-host-range of Rhizobium leguminosarum biovars phaseoli (strain CE3) and trifolii (strain RS1051) can be extended to Leucaena esculents and Phaseolus vulgaris plants, respectively, by the introduction of a DNA fragment 521 bp long, which carries 128 amino acids of the amino-terminal region of a nodD gene from R. tropici, as well as a putative nod-box-like sequence, divergently oriented. The 521 bp fragment, in the presence of L. esculenta or P. vulgaris root exudates, induced a R. leguminosarum bv. viciae nodA-lacZ fusion in either a CE3 or RS1051 background, respectively.     

Variation in N2 fixation,N and P contents of mycorrhizalVigna unguiculata in relation to the progressive development of extraradical hyphae ofGlomus mosseae

Summary Vigna unguiculata cv. 58–185 grown in a sterile Dek soil was inoculated withRhizobium sp. orRhizobium sp. plusGlomus mosseae. Response of the host plant to the treatments was estimated by periodic measurements of shoot and nodule dry weights, N₂ fixation (C₂H₂ reduction activity) and N and P contents up to the 50th day of the growth cycle. It was only 45 days after planting that shoot dry weight of dually inoculated plants differed significantly from that of plants inoculated withRhizobium sp. alone. Nodule dry weight and N₂ fixation of dually inoculated plants were significantly higher than those of plants inoculated withRhizobium sp. alone from day 20 after planting, but there was no significant difference in N content (%). During the first 20 days, shoot P content (%) of both sets of plants decreased progressively, P content of dually inoculated plants being lower than that of the others. Later, P content of dually inoculated plants increased rapidly whereas P content of the other plants remained constant. Increase in nodule dry weight, N₂ fixation and P content of dually inoculated plants corresponded to the onset of the development of the extra-radical hyphae ofGlomus mosseae. In the rhizosphere.

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Resumen Se cultivóVigna unguiculata cv. 58–185 en un suelo estéril tipo Dek, se inoculó conRhizobium sp. o conRhizobium sp. másGlomus mosseae. La respuesta de la planta huésped a los tratamientos se estudió midiendo periodicamente el peso seco de la parte aerea y de los nódulos, la fijación de N (actividad reductora de C₂H₂) y los contenidos de N y P hasta el 50° día del ciclo de crecimiento. La diferencia entre el peso seco de la parte aerea de las plantas con doble inoculación y aquellas inoculadas conRhizobium sp. unicamente, no fue significativa hasta 45 días despúés de la siembra. A los 20 días de la siembra tanto el peso seco de los nódulos como la fijación de nitrógeno de las plantas con doble inoculación eran significativamente superiores a los valores obtenidos para las plantas con soloRhizobium sp., aunque no se observaron diferencias en el contenido en N (%). Durante los primeros 20 días del ciclo el contenido en P (%) de ambos grupos de plantas disminuyó progresivamente, siendo los valores obtenidos por las plantas con doble inoculación inferiores a los de las demás. Más tarde el contenido en P de las plantas con doble inoculación aumentó rapidamente manteniéndose constante el de las demás. El incremento en el peso seco de los nódulos, en la fijación de N y en el contenido en P de las plantas con doble inoculación se correspondió con el inicio del desarrollo de las hifas extraradiculares deGlomus mosseae.

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Résumé On a inoculéV. unguiculata poussant dans un sol Dek stérile avecRhizobium etRhizobium plusGlomus mosseae. On a recherché la réponse de la plante-hôte à ces deux traitements en estimant périodiquement les poids des nodules et des parties aériennes de la plante, la fixation d'azote (activité réductrice de C₂H₂), les teneurs en N et P jusqu'au 50^e jour du cycle de végétation. C'est seulement au 45^e jour après la plantation que le poids sec des parties aériennes des plantes inoculées avec deux symbiotes (plantes doublement inoculées) diffère significativement de celui des plantes inoculées avec Rhizobium seul. Le poids sec des nodules et la fixation N₂ des plantes doublement inoculées sont significativement plus élevés que ceux des plantes inoculées avecRhizobium seul au 20^e jour après la plantation mais il n'y a pas de différence significative pour la teneur en N (%). Pendant les 20 premiers jours, la teneur en P (%) des parties aériennes des deux catégories de plantes décroit progressivement; la teneur en P des plantes doublement inoculées est plus faible que celle des plantes inoculées seulement avecRhizobium. Plus tard, la teneur en P des plantes doublement inoculées augmente rapidement tandis que celle des autres plantes reste constante. L'accroissement du poids sec des nodules, de la fixation d'azote et de la teneur en P observé chez les plantes doublement inoculées correspond au démarrage du développement des hyphes extra-radicales deGlomus mosseae dans la rhizosphère.

     

A carbon budget for heterotrophically grownAnkistrodesmus braunii andChlorella vulgaris

Summary Heterotrophic and photoheterotrophic growth of the green algaeChlorella vulgaris andAnkistrodesmus braunii were examined and compared through growth measurements and mass carbon budgets. Using two different estimates of overall efficiency, based upon the ratios of CO₂ evolved to substrate taken up and cellular carbon to substrate carbon utilized, it was concluded that both micro-organisms were capable of photoheterotrophy althoughC. vulgaris was more efficient thanA. braunii. Mass carbon budgets showed the distribution of carbon. After 11 days of growth in the light, 97 and 76% of the glucose substrate was accounted for as cell biomass forC. vulgaris andA. braunii respectively. Fermentation pathways appeared to function in both micro-organisms, particularly in the dark and in ageing cultures, as indicated by the apparent loss of carbon as volatile organics. The results obtained with the two micro-organisms studied demonstrate the ability of green algae to photoheterotrophically and heterotrophically convert a high proportion of an organic substrate into biomass. Thus, high-rate oxidation ponds should be considered from a heterotrophic perspective with a view to exploiting this heterotrophic potential.

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Un presupuesto para el carbono en el crecimiento heterótrofo de Ankistrodesmus braunii y Chlorella vulgaris

Resumen Se examinó y comparó el crecimiento heterótrofo y fotoheterótrofo midiendo crecimiento y presupuestos para el carbono de las siguientes algas verdes:Chlorella vulgaris y Ankistrodesmus braunii. La eficiencia general se estimó mediante dos parámetros: el cociente entre CO₂ suministrado y CO₂ fijado por el sustrato, y el cociente entre carbono celular y carbono del sustrato utilizado. Apartir de estas medidas se concluyó que ambos micro-organismos eran capaces de fotoheterotrofia aunqueC. vulgaris era más eficiente queA. braunii. Los presupuestos para la masa carbonada mostraron la distribución del carbono. Después de 11 días de crecimiento en presencia de luz el 97 y el 76% de la glucosa del sustrato se había transformado en biomasa celular enC. vulgaris y enA. braunii respectivamente. En ambos microorganismos parecieron funcionar vías fermentativas, especialmente en la oscuridad y en cultivos viejos, como se vio indicado por la aparente pérdida de carbono en formo de compuestos orgánicos volátiles. Los resultados obtenidos demuestran la habilidad de las algas verdes para convertir tanto fotoheterótrofa como heterótroficamente una elevada proporción de sustratos orgánicos en biomasa. Las balsas con una elevada demanda de oxigeno deberian, pues, de ser consideradas bajo una perspectiva heterótrofa con vistas a la explotación de dicho potencial heterótrofo.

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Bilans carbonés d'Ankistrodesmus braunii et de Chlorella vulgaris en croissance hétérotrophe

Résumé Les croissances hétérotrophes et photohétérotrophes des algues vertesChlorella vulgaris etAnkistrodesmus braunii ont été étudiées comparativement en mesurant la croissance et en établissant des bilans carbonés. A partir de deux estimations distinctes de l'efficacité globale, consistant dans les rapports CO₂ produit sur substrat utilisé et carbone cellulaire sur carbone métabolisé, il a été conclu que les deux micro-organismes sont photo-hétérotrophes, mais queC. vulgaris est plus efficace queA. braunii. La distribution du carbone a été déterminée par les bilans carbonés. Après onze jours de croissance à la lumière, les quantités de substrat carboné retrouvées dans la biomasse cellulaire deC. vulgaris et deA. braunii sont respectivement de 97 et 76%. Les voies fermentatives paraissent être présentes chez les deux microorganismes, et cela surtout à l'obscurité et dans les vieilles cultures, comme l'indique la perte apparente de carbone sous forme de composés organiques volatils. Les résultats obtenus avec les deux micro-organismes étudiés démontrent que les algues vertes sont capables de convertir photo-hétérotrophiquement et hétérotrophiquement une proportion élevée de la matière organique en biomasse. De ce fait, les étangs à taux d'oxydation élevée devraient être considérés du point de vue de l'exploitation de leur potentiel hétérotrophe.

     

Macroptilium atropurpureum (siratro) host specificity genes are linked to a nodD-like gene in the broad host range Rhizobium strain NGR234

Summary A 6.7 kb HindIII fragment from the Sym-plasmid of strain NGR234 was found to code a nodD-like gene flanked by two loci which were required for siratro host range. Transfer of the 6.7 kb fragment from NGR234 to R. trifolii strain ANU843 conferred extended host range ability to this strain on siratro plants but not to other plants normally nodulated by strain NGR234. Tn5 mutagenesis of the 6.7 kb fragment showed that insertions located into loci flanking the nodD-like gene abolished the extended host range phenotype. A hybridization probe spanning one of the host specificity loci was shown to hybridize to three specific bands in the NGR234 genome. Complementation and DNA hybridization data showed that the nodD-like gene of strain NGR234 was functionally similar to that in R. trifolii. The introduction to R. trifolii of the 6.7 kb HindIII fragment containing Tn5 insertions located in the nodD-like gene did not abolish the ability to extend the host range of R. trifolii to siratro plants. However, transfer of the 6.7 kb HindIII to R. trifolii derivatives containing Tn5 insertions into either nodA, B or C or other R. trifolii nod genes failed to confer siratro nodulation to these recipients. Reconstruction experiments showed that the 6.7 kb fragment from strain NGR234 and the 14 kb nodulation region of R. trifolii could induce the nodulation of siratro plants when introduced together into Sym-plasmid-cured Rhizobium strains.     

Mycorrhizae of nitrogen-fixing legumes

Summary Most plant species form mycorrhizae, which are symbiotic fungus-root associations. Many plants can also form symbioses with specific bacteria or actinomycetes which produce root nodules and fix atmospheric nitrogen within these nodules. The tripartite mycorrhiza-legume-Rhizobium symbiosis is the subject of this review. Mycorrhizal nitrogen-fixing legumes include many important temperate and tropical crops, e.g. clover, lucerne, beans (Phaseolus andVicia), peas, soybean, cowpea, pigeonpea, groundnuts,Stylosanthes, Pueraria andCentrosema. These forage and grain legumes form endomycorrhiza of the vesicular-arbuscular (VA) type, as do most species of the Mimosoideae and Papilionoideae. Some arborescent legumes also form VA mycorrhiza, e.g.Leucaena, but many, especially the Caesalpinoideae, form mycorrhiza of the ecto-type; some, e.g.Acacia, have both ecto- and VA mycorrhiza. In some legumes, e.g. clover andStylosanthes, mycorrhizal fungi can densely colonize>70% of the root system; in others, e.g. lupins, mycorrhizal infection is usually light. Unlike theRhizobium symbiosis, mycorrhizal symbioses are essentially non-specific. The ability of mycorrhizae to increase plant uptake of phosphate and alleviate P-stress in P-deficient soils leads to increases in nodulation, nitrogen-fixation, P concentration and plant growth. Mycorrhizae also affect trace element uptake, e.g. Cu and Zn, photosynthate supply, water relations and hormonal balance in legumes. Some legumes grow so poorly without mycorrhiza as to be ecologically obligately mycorrhizal. To some extent root geometry determines the degree of dependence of a legume on mycorrhiza, because the fungal hyphae extend the absorbing surface of the root. Where a legume is growing with a non-mycotrophic plant, its competitive ability can be increased by mycorrhiza. Environmental factors and inputs of P and N fertilizer affect the effectiveness of theRhizobium-mycorrhiza interaction. Also disease tolerance of legumes can be affected by mycorrhiza. The practical impact of mycorrhiza in nitrogen-fixing legumes may be considerable. Dual inoculation of leguminous crops with elite strains of mycorrhizal fungi andRhizobium bacteria, in conjunction with minimal N fertilizer and better utilization of less P fertilizer (rock or super), is currently being studied in many countries. Inoculation techniques are being developed for exploitation on a field scale. It is hoped that further investigations, especially in low-input cropping systems, will enable the substantial potential of mycorrhiza in legume productivity to be achieved.

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Resumen La mayoría de las especies vegetales forman micorrizas, que son asociaciones simbióticas hogno-raíz. Muchas plantas pueden también formar simbiosis con bacterias específicas o actinomicetos, produciendo nódulos radicales fijadores de nitrógeno atmosférico. La simbiosis tripartita micorriza-leguminosa-Rhizobium constituye el tema de esta revisión. Entre las leguminosas micorrizables y fijadoras de nitrógeno se incluyen cultivos importantes tanto de climas templados como tropicales, como son trébol, alfalfa, judía (Phaseolus yVicia), guisante, soja, freijol, guandú, cacahuete,Stylosanthes, Pueraria yCentrosema. Estas leguminosas forrajeras o de grano forman endomicorrizas del tipo vesículo-arbuscular (VA), al igual que la mayoría de las especies de las Mimosoideae y Papilionoideae. Algunas leguminosas arborescentes comoLeucaena también forman micorrizas VA aunque la mayoría, especialmente las pertenecientes a las Cesalpinoideae forman micorrizas de tipo ecto-, aunque se han citado casos como enAcacia que poseen ambos tipos de micorrizas, ecto y VA, simultaneamente. En algunas leguminosas (trébol yStylosanthes) el hongo micorrícico puede colonizar densamente (más del 70%) el sistema radical; en otros casos (Lupinus) la infección micorrícica es por lo general leve. Al contrario de lo que ocurre conRhizobium, las simbiosis micorrícicas son esencialmente no específicas. La capacidad de las micorrizas para incrementar la absorción de P por la planta, superando así la deficiencia en fosfato de los suelos pobres en P, conduce a un incrimento de la nodulación, fijación de nitrógeno, concentración de P y crecimiento de la planta. Las micorrizas también afectan la absorción de oligoelementos como Cu y Zn, la distribución de fotosintato, las relaciones hídricas y el balance hormonal en las leguminosas. Algunas leguminosas crecen con tan poco vigor en ausencia de micorrizas que pueden considerarse, desde un punto de vista ecológico, como obligatoriamente microrrícicas. Hasta cierto punto, la geometría de la raíz determina el grado de dependencia de una leguminosa de la micorriza, ya que las hifas del hongo aumentan la superficie absorbente de la raíz. Cuando una leguminosa crece junto con una planta no micorrizable, su capacidad competitiva puede incrementarse gracias a la micorriza. Diversos factores ambientales y el aporte de fertilizantes de N y P afectan la eficacia de la interacciónRhizobium-micorriza. La tolerancia de las leguminosas a distintas enfermedades puede verse también afectada por las micorrizas. El impacto práctico de las micorrizas en las leguminosas fijadoras de nitrógeno puede ser considerable. En muchos países se está estudiando el efecto de una doble inoculación de cultivos con cepas seleccionadas de hongos micorrícicos y deRhizobium junto con un aporte mínimo de nitrógeno y una mejor utilización de menor cantidad de abono fosfatado (de roca o superfosfato). Se están desarrollando distintas técnicas de inoculación para su explotación a nivel de campo. Se espera que el resultado de estas y otras investigaciones, especialmente en el área de sistemas agrícolas de bajo consumo, permita a las micorrizas desarrollar plenamente su papel en la productividad de las leguminosas.

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Résumé La plupart des plantes forment des mycorhizes, c'est à dire des associations symbiotiques des racines avec des champignons. Beaucoup de plantes peuvent aussi former des symbioses avec des bactéries spécifiques ou des actinomycètes qui produisent des nodules racinaires et fixent l'azote atmosphérique dans ces nodules. La symbiose tripartite mycorhize-légumineuse-Rhizobium est le sujet de la présente revue générale. Les légumineuses à mycorhizes fixant l'azote comprennent un grand nombre de cultures importantes des pays tempérés et tropicaux, comme le trèfle, la luzerne, les haricots (Phaseolus etVicia), les pois, le soja, le cajou, l'arachide,Vigna sinensis, Stylosanthes, Pueraria etCentrosema. Ces légumineuses à fourrage et à graines forment des endo-mycorhizes de type vésiculaire-arbusculaire (VA), comme le font le plupart des éspèces de Mimosoideae et de Papilionoideae. Certaines légumineuses arborescentes forment aussi de mycorhizes VA, par exempleLeucaena, mais beaucoup d'entre elles, particulièrement les Caesalpinoideae, forment des ecto-mycorhizes. Certaines, comme lesAcacia, ont à la fois des mycorhizes du type VA et du type ecto. Les champignons mycorrhizogènes peuvent densement coloniser (plus de 70%) les systèmes racinaires de quelques légumineuses comme le trèfle et leStylosanthes, mais ordinairement légèrement colonisent d'autres, eg.Lupinus. A la différence des symbioses àRhizobium, celles des mycorhizes sont essentiellement non-spécifiques. L'aptitude des mycorhizes à accroître l'absorption des phosphates et à réduire la déficience en P dans les sols qui en sont pauvres a pour conséquence d'accroître la nodulation, la fixation de l'azote, ainsi que la teneur en P et la croissance de la plante. Les mycorhizes influence également l'absorption des oligo-éléments, comme Cu et Zn, l'activité photo-synthétique, les relations avec l'eau, et l'équilibre hormonal des légumineuses. Certaines légumineuses poussent si mal en l'absence de mycorhizes qu'on peut les considérer, du point de vue écologique, comme obligatoirement mycotrophiques. La géométrie des racines détérmine dans une certaine mesure le degré de dépendence d'une légumineuse par rapport au mycorhizes. En effet, les hyphes fongiques accroissent la surface absorbante de la racine. Lorsque une légumineuse pousse avec une plante non-mycotrophique, sa compétitivité peut être accrue par la mycorhization. Certains facteurs de l'environnement, ainsi que l'apport de P et de N par des engrais diminuent l'efficacité de l'interactionRhizobium-micorhize. D'autre part la résistance des légumineuses aux maladies peut être affectée par les mycorhizes. L'impact pratique des mycorhizes sur les légumineuses fixant l'azote peut être considérable. La double inoculation avec des souches sélectionnées de champignons mycorhiziens et deRhizobium bactériens, associée à un apport minimal d'engrais azoté et à une meilleure utilisation d'un moins quantité d'engrais phosophoré (de roche ou super-phosphate), est couramment étudiée dans de nombreux pays. Des techniques d'inoculation sur le terrain sont mises au point. On espère que de nouvelles recherches, en particulier sur les systèmes de culture avec faible apport exogène, permettront au potentiel des mycorhizes pour la productivité des légumineuses de se réaliser pleinement.

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Invited paper presented at the VII International Conference on the Global Impacts of Applied Microbiology, Helsinki, 12–16 August 1985. Session 10.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Rhizobium etli</Emphasis> maize populations and their competitiveness for root colonization

Rhizobium etli, which normally forms nitrogen-fixing nodules on Phaseolus vulgaris (common bean), is a natural maize endophyte. The genetic diversity of R. etli strains from bulk soil, bean nodules, the maize rhizosphere, the maize root, and inside stem tissue in traditional fields where maize is intercropped with P. vulgaris-beans was analyzed. Based on plasmid profiles and alloenzymes, it was determined that several R. etli types were preferentially encountered as putative maize endophytes. Some of these strains from maize were more competitive maize-root colonizers than other R. etli strains from the rhizosphere or from bean nodules. The dominant and highly competitive strain Ch24-10 was the most tolerant to 6-methoxy-2-benzoxazolinone (MBOA), a maize antimicrobial compound that is inhibitory to some bacteria and fungi. The R. tropici strain CIAT899, successfully used as inoculant of P. vulgaris, was also found to be a competitive maize endophyte in inoculation experiments.     

Is a decreased water potential after withholding oxygen to roots the cause of the decline of leaf-elongation rates in Zea mays L. and Phaseolus vulgaris L.?

Leaf-elongation rates of Zea mays L. and Phaseolus vulgaris L. were measured in plants grown for 4 d in nutrient solution bubbled with N₂ and in soil-grown waterlogged Phaseolus plants. Leaf water potential in both species was lower 3–4h after replacing aeration by N₂-bubbling. In Zea, the water potential after 24 h or more was the same in control plants and plants with N₂ treatment. In Phaseolus, the water potential of inundated plants and plants with N₂ treatment was always lower than those of control plants. The leaf-elongation rate of both species was always lower in plants treated with N₂, especially during light periods. In Zea, the elongation rate was lowest in the first 24 h, whilst in Phaseolus it was lowest on the last (fourth) day of treatment. There was no difference between N₂ treatment and inundation experiments. It is concluded that during the first hours of treatment the leaf-elongation rate was reduced as a consequence of the lower water potential. Thereafter, however, elongation rates were lower than could be expected on the basis of the plant's water relations.Abbreviations LER leaf elongation rate - PEG-200 polyethylene-glycol 200 - RWC relative water content     

Observations on the use ofSesbania rostrata as green manure in paddy fields

Summary Sesbania rostrata is a wild annual legume that grows in West Africa in waterlogged soils during the rainy season. This plant can bear N₂-fixing nodules on roots and stems at the same time. Stem nodules result from the infection of predetermined sites (dormant root primordia distributed on the stems) by a specific strain ofRhizobium. The mode of infection ofS. rostrata is unique among the legumes, as it involves both an intercellular invasion by rhizobia and the development of infection threads. Inoculation of the stems is achieved by spraying a liquid culture of the specificRhizobium on the shoots. Properly inoculatedS. rostrata can fix up to 200 kg N₂/ha in 50 days. A unique property ofS. rostrata is to nodulate and fix nitrogen even when the amount of combined nitrogen in the soil is high. Based on 1 m² microplot trials conducted in Senegal during the summer the use ofS. rostrata as green manure doubled rice yields. These results were later confirmed in trials conducted on 25 m² plots. In winter, when the day length is shorter,S. rostrata grows poorly but flowers readily.Sesbania rostrata trials should be conducted in two successive stages: (1) assessment ofS. rostrata behaviour in a given geographic region; (2) assessment of the effect ofS. rostrata green manure on rice yields.

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Observaciones sobre el uso de Sesbania rostrata como abono verde en arrozales

Resumen Sesbania rostrata es una planta leguminosa anual que crece espontaneamente en el Oeste de Africa en suelos inundados durante la temporada de lluvias. Esta planta puede formar nódulos fijadores de nitrógeno en raíces y tallos simultaneamente. Los nódulos en tallos resultan de la infección por una cepa específica deRhizobium de lugares predeterminados (primordios de raíces latentes, distribuidos en el tallo). El tipo de infección que ocurre enS. rostrata es único en leguminosas ya que aparte de una invasión intercelular deRhizobium conlleva el desarrollo de hebras de infección. La inoculación de los tallos se realiza pulverizando sobre estos una cultura líquida delRhizobium especifico mediante un spray.Sesbania rostrata adecuadamente inoculada puede fijar hasta 200 kg/ha de nitrógeno en cincuenta días. Una propiedad singular de esta planta es su capacidad para nodular y fijar nitrógeno aún cuando el nitrógeno combinado existente en el suelo sea elevado. En experiencias realizadas durante el verano en Senegal en pequeñas parcelas de un metro cuadrado el uso deS. rostrata como abono verde dobló la cosecha de arroz. Estos resultados se confirmarén más tarde en parcelas experimentales de 25 m². Durante el invierno cuando el dia se acorta nel crecimiento deS. rostrata se ve frenado y tiene lugar la floración. Los próximos ensayos conS. rostrata deberían de realizarse a dos nivels: (1) estudio del comportamiento deS. rostrata en una determinada área geográfica; (1) estudio del efecto de la utilización deS. rostrata como abono verde en arrozales.

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Observations sur l'utilisation de Sesbania rostrata comme engrais vert dans les rizières

Résumé Sesbania rostrata est une légumineuse annuelle poussant dans les sols inondés de l'Afrique de l'Ouest pendant la saison des pluies. Cette plante peut porter des nodules fixateurs d'azote à la fois sur les racines et sur les tiges. Les nodules de tige proviennent de l'infection de sites prédéterminés (primordia de racines répartis sur les tiges) par une souche spécifique deRhizobium. Le mode d'infection deS. rostrata est unique parmi les légumineuses; il comporte en effet deux étapes: invasion intercellulaire par lesRhizobiums et développement de cordons d'infection. On inocule les tiges en pulvérisant sur les parties aériennes une culture liquide duRhizobium spécifique. S'il est convenablement inoculé,S. rostrata peut fixer jusqu'à 200 kg N₂/ha en 50 jours. Une caractéristique remarquable deS. rostrata est de noduler et de fixer l'azote même en présence de doses élevées d'azote combiné dans le sol. Des expériences conduites pendant l'été sur des microparcelles de 1 m² au Sénégal ont montré que l'utilisation deS. rostrata comme engrais vert pourrait doubler les rendements du riz. Ces résultats ont été confirmés ultérieurement sur des parcelles de 25 m². En hivers, lorsque la durée du jour est plus courte,S. rostrata se développe mal et fleurit facilement. Les essais à conduire surS. rostrata doivent comporter deux étapes: (1) évaluation du comportement deS. rostrata dans une région géographique donnée; (2) évaluation de l'effet de l'emploi de l'engrais vertS. rostrata sur les rendements du riz.

     

Genome Sequence of Rhizobium sp. Strain CCGE510, a Symbiont Isolated from Nodules of the Endangered Wild Bean Phaseolus albescens

We present the genome sequence of Rhizobium sp. strain CCGE510, a nitrogen fixing bacterium taxonomically affiliated with the R. leguminosarum-R. etli group, isolated from wild Phaseolus albescens nodules grown in native pine forests in western Mexico. P. albescens is an endangered bean species phylogenetically related to P. vulgaris. In spite of the close host relatedness, Rhizobium sp. CCGE510 does not establish an efficient symbiosis with P. vulgaris. This is the first genome of a Rhizobium symbiont from a Phaseolus species other than P. vulgaris, and it will provide valuable new insights about symbiont-host specificity.     

Estudio micologico de un caso de Micetoma por Cephalosporium en Puerto Rico

Resumen Hemos descrito un Cephalosporium como agente etiológico en un caso de Pié de Madura puertorriqueño. Este hongo crece bien en los medios ordinarios de laboratorio produciendo colonias características y dando origen a un pigmento difusible cuyo color varía de acuerdo con los ingredientes dal agar. Al examen microscópico, los cultivos nos revelan un gran número de conidios alargados que se caracterizan por su gran tamaño, su pronunciado eneorvamiento y su tabicación interna, a más de lo cual se notan muchos clamidosporos de morfología variadísima y, finalmente, estructuras nodulares muy semejantes a las que se desarrollan en ciertas especies del género Trichophyton. La identificatión específica del parásito ha quedado pendiente hasta tanto pueda hacerse un estudio comparativo de otras tres especies cefalospóricas que parecen guardar estrecha analogía con la nuestra a juzgar por las descripciones que de aquellas se han hecho.Sea cual fuere su posición sistemática, la especie aquí descrita no había sido encontrada nunca antes en las lesiones del micetoma. La literatura médica solamente registra otro caso de esa enfermedad producido por Cephalosporium. Se trataba entonces de una infectión contraida en el Brasil que tuvo como agente etiológico en parásito, distinto del nuestro, el cual fué estudiado y clasificado por Leão y Lobo como especie nueva : el Cephalosporium recifei.     

Effect ofRhizobium inoculation and the application of phosphate on the growth,yield and nitrogen fixation of soybeans

Summary Application of phosphate at 60, 90 and 120 kg P ha^–1 to the Bragg variety of soybeans inoculated with a mixture of three strains ofRhizobium japonicum (TAL 102 + TAL 377 + TAL 379) and grown in silty loam soil in a pot experiments, significantly improved the number of nodules per plant and increased production of shoots and roots by 65, 36 and 17%, the yield of pods by 38, 12 and 3% and N₂-fixing capacity by 57, 29 and 20%, respectively. Rhizobium inoculation alone with the test strains caused a positive but poor nodulation of the crop and increased its dry-matter production of shoots and roots by 22%, pods yield by 7% and N₂-fixing capacity by 6%. Soybean plants from uninoculated treatments were without nodules indicating that indigenous rhizobia associated with this crop are absent in the test soil. Phosphate concentration in the total dry matter of mature crop exhibited an increasing tendency as a result of all the applied levels of phosphorus.

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Resumen La adición de fosfato (60, 90, y 120Kg P ha^–1) a plantas de soja de la variedad Bragg inoculadas con una mezcla de tres cepas deRhizobium japonicum (TAL 102 + TAL 377 + TAL 379) cultivada en contenedores en un suelo arcillo-limoso, mejoró significativamente el número de nódulos por planta, aumentó la producción de tallos y raíces en un 65, 36 y 17%, el rendimiento de la cosecha en un 38, 12 y 3%, y la capacidad fijadora de N₂ en un 57, 29 y 20% respectivamente. La sola inoculación con las cepas deRhizobium ya mencionadas produjo una nodulación positiva aunque pobre del cultivo, incremetando la producción de tallos y raíces en un 22%, el rendimiento de la cosecha en un 7% y la capacidad fijadora de nitrógeno en un 6%. Las plantas de soja de los tratamientos no inoculados no tenían nódulos lo que indica que no habían rizobios específicos para esta planta en el suelo ensayado. La concentración de fosfato en la materia seca de las plantas maduras mostraba una tendencia a incrementarse como resultado de la aplicación de los distintos niveles de fosfato.

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Résumé L'application du phosphate à raison de 60, 90 et 120 kg en phosphore par hectare à la variété Bragg de soja inoculée avec un mélange de 3 souches deRhizobium japonicum (TAL 102, TAL 377 et TAL 379) et cultivée sur un sol gras limoneux dans des expériences en jarre de croissance, a augmenté de manière significative le nombre de nodules par plant et a augmenté la production des pousses et racines respectivement de 65, 36 et 17%, le rendement des cosses respectivement de 38, 12 et 3% ainsi que la capacité de fixer l'azote, respectivement de 57, 29 et 20%. L'inoculation seule avec les souches testées de Rhizobium a causé une nodulation positive mais faible de la plante, et a augmenté la production en matière sèche des racines et pousses de 22%, le rendement en cosses de 7% et la capacité de fixer l'azote de 6%. Les plants de soja dans les expériences sans inoculation ne présentaient pas de nodules, indiquant par là que les rhizobia endogènes associés avec cette plante étaient absents dans le sol expérimental. La concentation en phosphate dans la matière sèche totale de la plante mûre a marqué une tendance à l'augmentation comme suite aux applications du phosphore à tous les niveaux.