Food competition in captive female sooty mangabeys (Cercocebus torquatus atys)

We studied the social and foraging behavior of two captive groups of sooty mangabeys under two different spatial food situations. These food conditions were clumped (food was placed in a box) and dispersed (food was dispersed over the entire enclosure). In each group five adult females and two adult males were observed. As a criterion for food competition, individual differences in the relative food intake were used. Adult female mangabeys had a linear, stable, and unidirectional dominance hierarchy. Access to food was rank dependent among females only under clumped food distribution, as current models of the evolution of primate social systems predict. However, feeding success appeared to be mediated not by female but by male agonistic behavior toward females. High-ranking females received relatively less aggression from males and could, therefore, stay and feed longer in the feeding area. Male tolerance of higher-ranking females seems to mediate female feeding success under restricted food resources. The establishment of a special relationship with a high-ranking male might, therefore, be a strategy to get better access to food. This study demonstrates that female competition for access to food should not be analyzed separately from male influences on females and suggests that a more integral role of males in socioecological models of the evolution of primate social systems should be considered.     

Female rank instability in newly formed groups of familiar sooty mangabeys (Cercocebus torquatus atys)

The formation of two new groups of sooty mangabeys (N=6; N=11) comprised of individuals removed from their natal group of 98 animals led to dominance rank challenges with aggression and wounding, though this occurred after an interval of months. Dominance rank challenges were not expected because, unlike rhesus macaques, adult female sooty mangabeys do not affiliate with adult kin significantly more than nonkin and show minimal agonistic aiding even with adult kin, thus rank would seem to be independent of aiding. Moreover, during the last nine years, severe wounding of adults in a large stable group of sooty mangabeys has been virtually absent and agonistic behavior in a stable group of sooty mangabeys is exhibited at a low rate compared to some macaque species. New members in the group of six maintained their relative ranks for 12 weeks after which the beta supplanted the alpha female with no serious wounding. This ranking remained stable for 29 weeks after which the alpha and beta females were supplanted with fatal wounds inflicted to the alpha and less severe wounds to the beta female. The second subgroup also kept their relative ranks initially. However, after 27 weeks the lowest ranking female severely wounded the next to last ranking female and 1 week later attacked and displaced the alpha female with minimal wounding. Fourteen weeks later the beta female (formerly the alpha) attacked and severely wounded the new alpha female and regained the top dominance position. These events suggest that although sooty mangabeys do not exhibit strong kin preferential behavior among adults, they do have defined relationships within the long term, stable group. Removal from those defined relationships allows the possibility of social reorganization that may be mediated by serious aggression.     

Information content of sexual swellings and fecal steroids in sooty mangabeys (Cercocebus torquatus atys)

The accuracy and precision of sexual swellings and fecal steroids as measures of ovarian function and the periovulatory period were compared in 4 sexually mature, individually housed, sooty mangabey females. Fecal samples were collected daily over a 10-week period during the normal breeding season. Serum was collected 3×/week, daily during peak swelling, and sex skin was rated 5×/week on a 0–5 relative scale. Both fecal estradiol (fE₂) and progesterone (fP₄) were significantly correlated with serum values in composite E₂-aligned profiles and within the cycles of individual females with average correlations of r_s = 0.6. Follicular phase means for fE₂ and luteal phase means for fP₄ were significantly correlated with the serum means across cycles, suggesting that fecal concentrations could be used to accurately evaluate cycle phases within and across females. In contrast, the timing of peak swelling relative to the periovulatory period varied considerably across the cycles of individual females. Although maximum tumescence appears to bracket the periovulatory period, individual differences in the duration of peak swelling and the timing of its onset and end tend to obscure the exact time of ovulation in relation to maximal tumescence. These data illustrate the utility of fecal steroid analysis as a tool for further evaluation of the signal value of sexual skin and its role in mating interactions. © 1996 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Affiliative behavior of adult female sooty mangabeys (Cercocebus atys)

A 14-month study of 30 adult female members of a captive group of sooty mangabeys investigated their affiliative interactions with group members of varying age and sex. The adult females preferentially affiliated with other adults and interacted less than expected with immature group members. Dyadic frequencies suggested especially frequent affiliation with the three resident adult males, although the pattern of interaction with each male was distinct and apparently was related to age and dominance status of the males. Females of the alpha matriline showed significantly greater affiliation with the males than did those of other matrilines, but this preference was not reciprocated by the males. A preference for grooming older group members (some of the matriarchs and the oldest adult male) was also suggested. In consideration of the taxonomic distinctness of the sooty mangabey from the gray-cheeked mangabey, comparison of these results with those available for albigena were made. Few differences were apparent. Comparisons with the affiliative behavior of Papio females also suggested limited differences, despite the apparently isolated position of the sooty mangabey within the tribe Papionini.     

Absence of strongly kin-preferential behavior by adult female sooty mangabeys (Cercocebus atys)

The objective of this study was to test the hypothesis that kin-preferential behavior would be present in sooty mangabeys (Cercocebus atys), a species taxonomically close to baboons and macaques. The affiliative behavior of the adult female members of a large captive group of these mangabeys was analyzed to test this prediction. These females groomed, were approached by, were in proximity to, and were in contact with their kin significantly more than expected, but only when all kin were included in the analysis. Removal of only the mother-infant (less than 1 year) dyadic interactions removed all significant kin effects. Kin-preferential behavior was also absent in affiliative interactions among the adult females as a class. Affiliation between mothers and offspring significantly exceeded that for all other kinship categories (such as siblings, etc.), and affiliation with kin other than offspring did not differ from that with nonkin adults. In their interactions with nonkin, the adult females showed some preference (duration of grooming) for those adult females of similar age, an effect predicted by the intensity of interaction among members of the same age cohort during development. These similar-aged females may also be paternally related. In comparing these results with the existing literature on kin-preferential behavior, two conclusions may be reached: (1) age and degree of kinship are primary factors that must be considered in order to avoid the existing overgeneralization of the importance of kinship in primate social organization, and (2) the role and importance of affiliative behavior in kin-selection theory should perhaps be re-examined in light of questions raised by this study.     

Hormones and sexual behavior associated with postconception perineal swelling in the sooty mangabey (Cercocebus torquatus atys)

Three studies were conducted with female sooty mangabeys to describe the occurrence of perineal swelling during pregnancy and to document the associated patterns of ovarian hormone secretion and sexual behavior. Menstrual cycles and pregnancies were charted in 29 female subjects by recording daily vaginal bleeding and perineal swelling. As in other swelling species, maximum perineal tumescence corresponded with the periovulatory phase of the cycle; however, a second tumescence was recorded during pregnancy, with a peak at 49 days postconception. The swelling patterns were similar with the exception that deturgescence was slower during pregnancy. In a second study, blood samples were obtained weekly from nine females to document the estradiol (E₂) and progesterone (P₄) profiles during pregnancy. Analyses revealed increased E₂ concentrations and low P₄ levels in association with the postconception swelling. A third study compared sexual behavior during ovulatory and post-conception tumescent peaks. Behavioral data revealed that, although there was no overall difference in male mount rate to females during the ovulatory and postconception maximum swelling period, when only the alpha male was considered, significantly fewer mounts were directed to females exhibiting a post-conception versus an ovulatory maximum tumescence.     

Dietary variation and food hardness in sooty mangabeys (Cercocebus atys): Implications for fallback foods and dental adaptation

We present information on food hardness and monthly dietary changes in female sooty mangabeys (Cercocebus atys) in Tai Forest, Ivory Coast to reassess the hypothesis that thick molar enamel is parsimoniously interpreted as a response to consumption of hard foods during fallback periods. We demonstrate that the diet of sooty mangabeys varies seasonally, but that one food—Sacoglottis gabonensis—is the most frequently consumed food every month and year round. This food is the hardest item in the sooty diet. Given that this species has among the thickest enamel within the primate order, a plausible conclusion is that thick enamel in this taxon evolved not in response to seasonally critical function or fallback foods, but rather to the habitual, year round processing of a mechanically protected foodstuff. These data serve as a caution against de rigueur interpretations that reliance on fallback foods during lean periods primarily explains the evolution of thick enamel in primates. Am J Phys Anthropol 154:413–423, 2014. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Social compatibility in a newly formed all‐male group of white crowned mangabeys (Cercocebus atys lunulatus)

Surplus males in primate captive populations are a common problem for zoos. Some captive breeding programs promote all‐male groups as an adequate option to house surplus males, but there have been few attempts to assess the feasibility of this management technique across primate species. The present study provides preliminary data regarding social compatibility within a newly formed all‐male group of four white crowned mangabeys (Cercocebus atys lunulatus). The study was conducted at the Valencia Zoo (Spain), where data on social behavior were collected over 6 months using continuous focal animal sampling for a total of 87 hr of observation. Results show that low intensity aggressive behaviors (facial threats) were expressed at high rates, whereas physical aggression (fights) rarely occurred. Aggression was more frequent among individuals belonging to the same age–gender class. Regarding affiliative behaviors, every individual actively sought proximity to all other group members through positive approaches, and although not all males carried out social grooming, every male was groomed by at least one group member. Our results suggest that the group was compatible socially because social relationships among the individuals were not neutral, and physical aggression occurred at low rates. The present study provides preliminary data supporting the feasibility of all‐male groups as a management option for surplus males in captive populations of white crowned mangabeys. Nevertheless, further studies are needed to be able to generalize both within and across species. Zoo Biol 0:1–7, 2007. © 2006 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

A brief report on the social behavior of the crested mangabey (Cercocebus galeritus galeritus) with a comparison to the sooty mangabey (C. torquatus atys)

A group of 38 free ranging crested mangabeys in the Tana River Primate Reserve was studied over a 6-week period for a total of 209.5 hr and behavioral comparisons made to a captive group of sooty mangabeys. Although quantitative comparisons between these two mangabey species are not possible, the present data suggest that these geographically separated mangabeys share several behavioral similarities. Copulatory behavior in both species involved a pattern of female darting and female vocalizing following the mount by the male. Several similarities in agonistic behavior also existed: 1) The victim often returned or stayed within 1 m of the aggressor following an agonistic episode; 2) retaliation in which the victim first fled or avoided the aggressor, then subsequently, chased or lunged at the aggressor, typically while screaming; and 3) frequent redirection of aggression by the victim following an agonistic episode. A dominance rank reversal occurred between the two adult male crested mangabeys with no severe wounding. The rank reversal seemed to be related to two subsequent behaviors which included infant carriage by the deposed alpha in the presence of the new alpha male and female demonstrations of extreme protectiveness of their infants in the presence of the new alpha male. Both of these behaviors have been reported in the sooty mangabey group.     

Sex and age differences in the diet and ingestive behaviors of sooty mangabeys (Cercocebus atys) in the Tai Forest, Ivory Coast

Members of the Cercocebus-Mandrillus clade are united by several morphological features, including expanded premolars which are argued to be associated with a preponderance of hard objects in the diet. We test the association between premolar expansion and hard object feeding by examining how different dental regions are used during food processing. We examined the diet and oral processing activities of sooty mangabeys (Cercocebus atys) in the Ivory Coast's Tai forest from August 2008 to September 2009. In addition to compiling diet profiles, we recorded the frequency that individuals performed four activities: 1) incising, 2) canine puncturing/scraping, 3) postcanine crushing (i.e., isometric biting), and 4) routine mastication (chewing cycles). Sooty mangabeys have a relatively narrow diet that consists largely of nuts/seeds, fruits, and invertebrates. While there are age and sex differences in diet, the most frequently consumed foods are similar across age and sex classes. The most frequently consumed foods are seeds of Sacoglottis gabonensis which are the hardest items in the sooty mangabey diet. Patterns of ingestive behavior vary with food type, but adults and nonadults (excluding infants dependent on mothers) of both sexes process similar foods. Premolar expansion in Cercocebus atys is associated with powerful crushing of hard objects of specific size and durophagy is a constant feature of sooty mangabey feeding ecology throughout ontogeny.     

Hand preference in unimanual and bimanual tasks and postural effect on manual laterality in captive red-capped mangabeys (Cercocebus torquatus torquatus)

Hand preference in 11 captive red-capped mangabeys (Cercocebus torquatus torquatus) was examined under different conditions: a free situation during spontaneous food processing, three different postural conditions (brachiating, and bipedal and tripedal standing), and a situation involving bimanual processing. Generally, individual laterality was found regardless of the task and behavior involved. However, the number of monkeys with hand preferences and the strength of the preference increased with the complexity of the tasks. The monkeys exhibited a significantly higher and positive mean manual preference index (HI) when they were hanging than when they were quadrupedal or sitting. The strength of manual preference (ABS-HI) was in turn higher when the monkeys were hanging or bipedal than when they were quadrupedal. The strength of manual preference was higher for both the bimanual and experimental tasks than for unimanual tasks and spontaneous activities. Although our sample was too small to allow us to make any generalizations concerning lateral preferences in red-capped mangabeys, we propose some hypotheses about the influence of posture stability and task complexity.     

Validation of radioimmunoassays for LH and FSH in the sooty mangabey (Cercocebus atys): Characterization of LH and the response to GnRH

Heterologous radioimmunoassays (RIA) for macaque LH and FSH were validated for the measurement of these hormones in the sooty mangabey and mangabey pituitary LH was characterized relative to rhesus monkey LH. Dilutions of a pituitary mangabey extract and a partially purified preparation of mangabey LH ran parallel to a rhesus monkey standard (LER 1909-2) in the ovine-ovine (o-o) LH assay but showed some deviation from parallelism in the rhesus monkey FSH assay. The LH potency of the mangabey extract and standard were six and 190 times more potent, respectively, than LER 1909-2 in the LH RIA. Mangabey LH was estimated to have a molecular weight of 40,000–42,000 daltons vs 35,000–38,000 daltons for rhesus LH on Sephadex G-100 chromatography. Plasma levels of radioimmunoreactive LH, FSH, and testosterone were assayed before and after a bolus administration of 25, 50, or 100 μg synthetic go-nadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) to adult male mangabeys. A significant increase in serum levels of LH was seen within 30 min with levels more than fourfold higher than the basal level of LH after administration of 100 μg GnRH. However, no consistent increases in plasma FSH values were detected. The integrated mean LH response above preinjection levels following 25, 50, or 100 μg GnRH was dose related. Serum levels of testosterone were also elevated after administration of GnRH, but peak concentrations of testosterone lagged behind peak levels of LH by approximately 30 min. These studies indicate that the heterologous RIAs may be used for measuring gonadotropins in the mangabey and that the male mangabey is apparently more sensitive to GnRH than the rhesus monkey.     

Isolation and characterization of the first simian immunodeficiency virus from a feral sooty mangabey (Cercocebus atys) in West Africa

Abstract: The lineage of HIV-2-like viruses was studied in feral sooty mangabeys (SMs) by serological and genetic methods. Four feral sooty mangabeys were positive for simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) antibodies and a new isolate, SIV_smSL92a, was obtained. Genetic analysis of gag genes showed that SIV_smSL92a was highly diverse and a distinct sequence subtype within the SIV_sm/HIV-2 family. The results showed that SIV_sm is the most diverse group of SIVs found thus far in a single monkey species.     

Corn bunting (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Miliaria calandra</Emphasis>) males respond differently to alternating and overlapping playback of song

Interactive playback experiments were used to study the signal value to the corn bunting, Miliaria calandra, of alternating and overlapping singing. We subjected 15 males to two stimuli that differed in the temporal pattern of song playback (alternating or overlapping). We measured eight characteristics of the males’ response in two categories—song output and movements. Overlapping and alternating playback elicited a similar song response, characteristic of highly aroused males. Song response correlated positively with males’ singing activity before playback, irrespective of stimulus. There were significant differences between latency of approach to the loudspeaker and number of flights. Birds approached the loudspeaker more quickly and spent more time close to it when playback alternated with their songs. The results suggest overlapping song could be interpreted as a stronger threat but elicits a more cautious, rather than stronger, response than the alternating pattern. Males were found to shorten songs during the playback compared with songs sung before and after stimulation. The only predictor of degree of song shortening was song activity before the playback began. It should, therefore, be regarded as a signal which is related to escalated, close-distance counter-singing.     

Sex differences in the vocal repertoire of adult red‐capped mangabeys (Cercocebus torquatus): a multi‐level acoustic analysis

Sex differences in the vocal behavior of nonhuman primates can take various forms: sex‐specific call types, differential production of shared call types, or sex discrepancy in phonation. Also, a growing literature is evidencing that systematically analyzing the vocal repertoires of primates at the call level might lead to underestimating their communicative abilities. Here, we present an extensive multi‐level analysis of the still unknown vocal repertoire of adult red‐capped mangabeys (Cercocebus torquatus), with a special emphasis on sex differences. We collected recordings from seven adult males and seven adult females housed in captivity. We present a structurally‐based classification of mangabey calls that we cross‐validated by an analysis of the associated contexts of emission. We found 12 sound units (including six sex‐specific) that were concatenated to form eight call types (including four sex‐specific), which were produced either singularly or in sequences composed of one (“repetition”) or several (“combination”) call types. We extracted organizational principles that ruled call composition and calling patterns. This revealed a high degree of potentially meaningful variability in terms of semantics and syntax. Male–female discrepancy in terms of phonation could be related to morphological dimorphism and would enable listeners to behave appropriately according to the sex of the caller. Sex differences in repertoire size, structural gradation, and call usage could reflect specificities of male–female social roles. We discuss the pertinence of these sex differences according to social system and habitat quality. Am. J. Primatol. 72:360–375, 2010. © 2010 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

The phylogenetic relationships of the physaloid genera (Solanaceae) based on morphological data

A group of genera, e.g., Chamaesaracha, Leucophysalis, Physaliastrum, Margaranthus, and Withania, in the subfamily Solanoideae (Solanaceae) is centered around the genus Physalis and has been named the physaloid group. It comprises a number of small and often poorly known genera, sometimes seen as united with Physalis and/or each other. A hypothesis of the phylogenetic relationships within this group, based on parsimony analyses of morphological data, is here presented for the first time. The result is discussed in relation to prevailing generic circumsciptions and taxonomic consequences. It is also compared with hypotheses of relationships based on cpDNA data.     

Sibling Aggregation Preference Depends on Activity Phase in the European Earwig (Forficula auricularia)

Benefits and costs of group living may be differentially influenced by kinship or familiarity and depend on context. For example, aggregation with kin may be costly in a mating context due to the risk of inbreeding, but beneficial in social interactions because it may reduce within‐group competition. Research investigating aggregation behaviour in different contexts is scarce, especially in gregarious invertebrates. In the present study, we investigated the aggregation among adult European earwigs (Forficula auricularia) by comparing the aggregation behaviour of groups composed of individuals from two different families with the aggregation dynamics of groups composed of individuals from the same family (siblings). Aggregation behaviour was measured both during the night (active phase) and during the day (inactive phase). Our results showed enhanced aggregation among individuals from the same family at night, but lack of such preferences during the day. These findings demonstrate that earwigs are able to recognize familiar relatives and that this information is used for aggregation decisions at night, while they are most active, but not during the day when they rest.     

Helicoverpa zea males (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) respond to the intermittent fine structure of their sex pheromone plume and an antagonist in a flight tunnel

Abstract. We investigated the behavioural response of male Helicoverpa zea (Boddie) to the fine-scale structure of an odour plume experimentally modified in a wind tunnel by using an air-pulsing device. Male H. zea flew upwind to pulsed filaments of a binary pheromone blend of (Z)-11-hexadecanal (Z11-16:Ald) and (Z)-9-hexadecanal (Z9-16:Ald) in the ratio of 20:1. Sustained upwind flight in experimentally altered intermittent plumes was dependent on concentration, as well as the frequency of generation of odour filaments. At a loading of 10μg of the major pheromone component, Zll-16:Ald, which gave an emission rate of approximately that released by a female H. zea , sustained upwind flight and source contact correlated positively with filament delivery rate, becoming significant at a minimum filament delivery rate of 2/s. Decreases in upwind progress and source location were recorded at a loading of 1 μg of Z11-16:Ald. At this suboptimal dosage, a high filament generation rate of 10/s was necessary for significant upwind progress and source contact. When an interspecific compound: (Z)-11-hexadecenyl acetate (Z11-16:OAc), was added to the attractive pheromone binary aldehyde blend of H. zea at a proportion of 10% of the major pheromone component, and pulsed from the same source, there was a significant reduction in sustained upwind progress and source location by males, indicating that Z11-16:OAc is antagonistic to the upwind progress of H. zea. However, Z11-16:OAc was less antagonistic when its filaments were isolated and alternated with pheromone filaments, indicating a strong effect of the synchronous arrival of odour filaments on the antenna needed for antagonism of upwind flight.     

Female sexual behavior and sexual swelling size as potential cues for males to discern the female fertile phase in free-ranging Barbary macaques (Macaca sylvanus) of Gibraltar

Although female catarrhine primates show cyclic changes in sexual behavior and sexual swellings, the value of these sexual signals in providing information to males about timing of the fertile phase is largely unclear. Recently, we have shown that in Barbary macaques, males receive information from females which enables them to discern the fertile phase and to focus their reproductive effort accordingly. Here, we investigate the nature of the cues being used by examining female sexual behavior and the size of sexual swelling as potential indicators of the fertile phase. We collected behavioral data and quantified swelling size using digital images of 11 females of the Gibraltar Barbary macaque population and related the data to the time of ovulation and the fertile phase as determined from fecal hormone analysis. We found that rates of female sexual behaviors were not correlated with female estrogen levels and did not significantly differ between the fertile and non-fertile phases of the cycle. In contrast, swelling size was significantly correlated with female estrogen levels and increased predictably towards ovulation with size being maximal during the fertile phase. Moreover, frequencies of male ejaculatory copulations showed a strong positive correlation with swelling size and highest rates were found during maximum swelling. Our data provide strong evidence that female Barbary macaques honestly signal the probability of fertility through sexual swelling and that males apparently use this information to time their mating activities. Honest advertising of the fertile phase might be part of a female strategy to manipulate male mating behavior for their own advantage, such as ensure fertilization with high quality sperm or influence paternity outcome.