Evaluation of the parasitoid Copidosoma koehleri for biological control of the potato tuber moth,Phthorimaea operculella,in Israeli potato fields

The potato tuber moth Phthorimaea operculella (Zeller) (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) is a major agricultural pest of solaneceous crops in warm countries worldwide. The encyrtid polyembryonic parasitoid Copidosoma koehleri (Blanchard) has been successfully introduced for biological control of the moth in potato fields in South Africa and Australia; however, augmentative releases of the parasitoid in trial plots and in commercial potato fields in Israel did not reduce pest populations or infestation levels more than chemical treatment. Copidosoma koehleri accounted for 4–5% of parasitism on tuber moth caterpillars, while most parasitism was due to local species of larval parasitoids. The abundance and composition of local parasitoids did not differ between C. koehleri release plots and conventionally treated control plots. These findings can be interpreted as failure of the introduced parasitoids to survive and locate their hosts, or as mortality of C. koehleri within hosts in the field. Sentinel hosts, placed in trial plots and collected after 24 h, were rarely parasitised by C. koehleri, supporting the first interpretation. To test the second hypothesis, hosts parasitised by C. koehleri were placed in field plots for a week, collected, and reared out in the laboratory. The emergence rates of C. koehleri from these hosts resembled those of lab-reared controls, suggesting that mortality within hosts in the field is not a major cause of C. koehleri's poor biocontrol performance.     

Sex differences in the protection of host immune systems by a polyembryonic parasitoid

Endoparasitoids have the ability to evade the cellular immune responses of a host and to create an environment suitable for survival of their progeny within a host. Generally, the host immune system is suppressed by endoparasitoids. However, polyembryonic endoparasitoids appear to invade their hosts using molecular mimicry rather than immune system suppression. It is not known how the host immune system is modified by polyembryonic endoparasitoids. Using haemocyte counts and measurement of cellular immune responses, we evaluated modification of the host immune system after separate infestations by a polyembryonic parasitoid (Copidosoma floridanum) and another parasitoid (Glyptapanteles pallipes) and by both together (multi-parasitism). We found that the polyembryonic parasitoid maintains and enhances the host immune system, whereas the other parasitoid strongly suppresses the immune system. Multi-parasitization analysis revealed that C. floridanum cancelled the immune suppression by G. pallipes and strengthened the host immunity. This enhancement was much stronger with male than with female C. floridanum.     

Interspecific competition between the polyembryonic wasp Copidosoma floridanum and the gregarious endoparasitoid Glyptapanteles pallipes

We examined interspecific competition between the egg-larval polyembryonic parasitoid Copidosoma floridanum (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) and the gregarious larval endoparasitoid Glyptapanteles pallipes (Hymenoptera: Braconidae). Approximately 72% of multiparasitized Acanthoplusia agnata (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) produced C. floridanum adults, 14% produced G. pallipes adults, and 14% died without producing any parasitoids. Development was delayed and the rate of weight gain was reduced in multiparasitized hosts that produced C. floridanum compared with singly-parasitized hosts. In contrast, only weight was reduced in multiparasitized hosts that produced G. pallipes adults. Compared with single parasitism, the brood size of wasps emerging from multiparasitized hosts was reduced in both species. The percentage of hosts containing precocious larvae of C. floridanum, which are considered to be soldiers, did not increase in response to parasitization by G. pallipes. However, developmental cessation and death of G. pallipes eggs and larvae may be closely related to the number of coexisting precocious larvae.     

Effect of Bt-cotton expressing Cry1A(c) on the survival and fecundity of two hymenopteran parasitoids (Braconidae, Encyrtidae) in the laboratory

We examined the effect of Bt-cotton (Event 531) plants expressing the Bacillus thuringiensis δ-endotoxin CryIA(c) on two hymenopteran endoparasitoids, Cotesia marginiventris and Copidosoma floridanum. In the laboratory, parasitized and unparasitized Pseudoplusia includens larvae were reared on foliage from a conventional soybean cultivar (Pioneer 97B61), a conventional cotton cultivar (DPL 5415), or a Bt-cotton cultivar (NuCotn 33B). C. marginiventris developed significantly faster within P. includens larvae feeding on Pioneer 97B61 and DPL 5415 compared to those feeding on NuCotn 33B. C. marginiventris that developed inside P. includens larvae feeding on NuCotn 33B suffered reduced longevity, and females had fewer ova. NuCotn 33B also affected the growth and development of P. includens parasitized with C. floridanum and life history parameters of adult C. floridanum. Parasitized and unparasitized P. includens developed more slowly when they were fed NuCotn 33B and the prepupae weighed less. Survival of parasitized and unparasitized P. includens was lower when larvae were fed NuCotn 33B and some evidence points to higher susceptibility of parasitized caterpillars to intoxication by NuCotn 33B. Fewer C. floridanum adults emerged from hosts fed NuCotn 33B, but pupal weight and adult longevity were unaffected. Analysis comparing the two experiments conducted with C. floridanum suggests that older NuCotn 33B plants (90–120 days after planting) may affect parasitoid development and adult survival less than younger NuCotn 33B plants (60–90 days after planting). Feeding on NuCotn 33B by P. includens affected the survival and development of the two hymenopteran endoparasitoids studied here, and the degree of the effect was similar to that observed with natural resistance found in soybean plants. It remains to be determined if the effects demonstrated here are less than, equal to, or greater than the impact of conventional insecticide applications used in conventional, non-transgenic, cotton.     

Effects of host age on the performance of >Diadromus collaris, a pupal parasitoid of >Plutella xylostella

The ichneumonid >Diadromus collaris(Gravenhorst) (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae) is amajor solitary, pupal endoparasitoid of thediamondback moth, >Plutella xylostella(Linnaeus) (Lepidoptera: Plutellidae).Experiments to examine parasitism of the hostpupae of different ages by the parasitoid wereconducted in the laboratory. >Diadromuscollaris preferred host pupae that were in thefirst half of their pupal development. Survivalfrom larva to adult, and size and parasitizingcapacity of the resultant female adultsdecreased dramatically as host pupal ageincreased. When ovipositions were made intohost pupae that were in the last quarter oftheir development, all parasitoids died beforeadult emergence. The performance of >D.collaris, as affected by host pupal age,agrees with the simple diet theory thatpredicts female wasps should select hosts ofhigher nutritional quality for oviposition.     

Host-age discrimination during host location byCotesia glomerata, a larval parasitoid ofPieris brassicae

Some parasitoids are restricted with respect to the host stage that they attack and even to a certain age within a stage. In this paper we investigate whether the parasitoidCotesia glomerata can discriminate between old and young caterpillar instars of its host,Pieris brassicae, before contacting these hosts, since contacts with older instars are very risky with a chance of being killed, due to the aggressive defensive behaviour of the caterpillars. Flight chamber dual choice tests showed that volatile chemicals emitted by Brussels sprouts plants (Brassica oleracea var. gemmifera) after feeding damage by 1st and 5th larval instars are equally attractive to the wasps. Simulated herbivore damage by 2nd and 5th larval instars, obtained by treating mechanically damaged leaves with carterpillar regurgitant, was also equally attractive, even when the wasps were exposed to repeated experience on different larval instars to increase their discriminatory ability. In contrast, single choice contact bioassays showed that the time spent searching on a leaf with feeding damage of 1st instar larvae was significantly longer than the time spent on 5th instar feeding damage or on mechanically damaged leaves. Both flight and contact bioassays did not show any effect of egg-related infochemicals. The results demonstrate thatC. glomerata can discriminate between young and old larval instars ofP. brassicae, without contacting the caterpillars. This is not done through volatile herbivore-induced synomones but through cues that are contacted after arrival at a caterpillar-infested leaf.     

The effect of host nutrition on growth and development of the parasitoid waspVenturia canescens

We investigated the effect of host (Plodia interpunctella; Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) nutritional status on development of the solitary endoparasitoid,Venturia canescens (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae). Parasitoids from 3rd (L3) instars reared on a deficient diet during early parasitism took longer to develop and suffered higher mortality than those reared from hosts fedad libitum although there was not a significant difference in the size of eclosing wasps from the two groups. L5 hosts reared at high density produced smaller parasitoids, which developed more rapidly than those reared from hosts from low density containers, although mortality was higher in the latter. In a separate experiment we starved groups of 10–20 hosts (parasitized as L3) daily beginning on the 4th day after parasitism, to determine the host developmental stage required for successful parasitoid development to eclosion. Parasitoid survivorship increased with length of host access to food, while the egg-to-adult parasitoid development time increased throughout the experiment. Parasitoid size decreased with increasing periods of host starvation. The successful emergence ofVenturia depends uponPlodia reaching the size normally attained in the mid-5th instar, or 50–70% of the mass of healthy late 5th instars. Our results show that when earlier instars are parasitized, host growth is essential for successful parasitoid development to eclosion. Furthermore, they suggest that, for many koinobionts, host suitability may be greatly influenced by feeding rate and food quality.     

Influence of host developmental state on host suitability and reproductive biology of the parasitoid Eucelatoria bryani

Eucelatoria bryani Sabrosky (Diptera: Tachinidae) successfully parasitized 2nd through 5th instars and prepupal Heliothis zea (Boddie) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) in the laboratory. Percent successful parasitism (that which resulted in the production of adult parasitoid progeny) increased with host developmental state, reaching 95% in 5th instars, but fell to 63% in prepupae. While 25% of the exposed prepupae metamorphosed to pupae, none developed into adults. E. bryani maggots emerged from only 5% of H. zea pupae. The mean number of fly puparia and adults produced per successfully parasitized larva increased with host stadium, reaching 14.5±1.33 (SEM) and 10.6±1.02, respectively, in prepupae. The sex ratio of adult parasitoid progeny per host larval stadium was variable, and did not appear to follow a pattern. A formula for calculating a host favorability index is presented. This index allows a direct comparison of the overall impact and reproductive potential of E. bryani attacking hosts of varying developmental states.

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Résumé Les influences de l'état de développement de l'hôte sur le taux de parasitisme, la production de descendants, l'émergence des adultes et le taux sexuel de la techinaire E. bryani Sabrosky ont été examinés au laboratoire. Un parasitisme réussi,-qui entraîne la formation d'un parasitoïde adulte-, s'effectue dans les chenilles de stades 2 à 5 et dans les prénymphes d'Heliothis zea Boddie. II s'agit d'un élargissement considérable de la gamme connue des tailles convenables d'hôtes. Bien que le parasitisme n'ait jamais réussi avec les chenilles de premier stade, une très forte mortalité, 93% a été observée quand ces petites chenilles ont été exposées à la tachinaire. Pour permettre l'introduction par le larvipositeur des asticots dans la chenille, la mouche perfore la cuticule de l'hôte avec un sclérite modifié; ainsi, une grande partie de la mortalité est provoquée vraisemblablement par le traumatisme dû au parasitoïde. Le succès du parasitisme a augmenté en fonction du développement de l'hôte du second stade (30%) au cinquième stade (95%), pour tomber à 63% dans les prénymphes. Cependant, aucune des prénymphes exposées aux mouches n'a été capable de donner des papillons.Les production moyennes de pupes et de mouches par chenille effectivement parasitée ont augmenté avec le stade de développement de l'hôte pouratteindre dans les prénymphes respectivement 14,5±1,33 et 10,6±1,02. Le taux sexuel des mouches obtenues a été très variable pour les différents stades de développement des chenilles, sans qu'aucune corrélation ait pu être mise en évidence. Une formule permettant de calculer un indice d'adéquation de l'hôte est proposé. Cet indice permet une comparaison directe des impacts globaux et des potentiels reproducteurs des femelles de E. bryani attaquant des hôtes à différents stades.

     

Detrimental effects of plant compounds on a polyembryonic parasitoid are mediated through its highly polyphagous herbivore host

Plant defensive compounds can have sometimes severe deleterious effects on both herbivores and their natural enemies. Iridoid glycosides (IGs) are defensive compounds that are well established as deterrent to several generalist herbivores and generalist predators. Trichoplusia ni Hübner (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) is exceptional among generalist herbivores for its ability to tolerate and thrive when feeding upon IG‐producing plant species; however, it is not known whether the compounds themselves have a harmful effect on T. ni and whether the effects in turn affect its oligophagous endoparasitoid Copidosoma floridanum Ashmead (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae). To examine these effects, a semi‐purified extract of the IG‐containing plant Plantago lanceolata L. (Plantaginaceae), containing the IGs aucubin and catalpol, was added to artificial diets at 0, 1, 5, or 10% diet dry weight. These diets were fed to both C. floridanum‐parasitized and unparasitized T. ni. Diets higher in IGs tended to be more toxic to both parasitized and unparasitized larvae: host larvae that did survive were slightly smaller and took longer to develop on higher IG diets and total clutch size and survival of the parasitoid C. floridanum were greatly reduced as the host's dietary intake of IGs increased. Only small amounts of aucubin were detected inside the T. ni hemocoel, suggesting that the negative effect of these compounds on C. floridanum is due to nutritional quality of the host being reduced rather than direct toxic effects of the compounds.     

Host-habitat conditioning in the eulophid egg parasitoid, Edovum puttleri: effects of herbivore's host and its food plant

The egg parasitoid, Edovum puttleri Grissell, was cultured from eggs of two Leptinotarsa hosts, L. decemlineata (Say) and L. texana Schaeffer, and experienced on eggs from three L. decemlineata food plants, namely potato, Solanum tuberosum tuberosum L., eggplant, S. melongena L., and tomato, Lycopersicon esculentum Mill. Host preference of the various cultures was determined using choice tests. parasitoid choices were influenced by the Leptinotarsa rearing host. Wasps, reared from L. decemlineata eggs from a mixture of all three food plants and experienced on egg masses from all three food plants, preferred to parasitize egg masses from potato. Wasps, reared from L. texana eggs from silver leaf nightshade, S. elaeagnifolium L., and experienced on egg masses from all three food plants, preferred to parasitize egg masses from tomato. Choices were also influenced by the herbivore's food plant that wasps were conditioned to. Wasps, reared from L. texana and experienced on egg masses from potato, preferred to parasitize egg masses from potato. Wasps, reared from L. decemlineata on potato and experienced on egg masses from potato, preferred to parasitize egg masses from potato. Wasps, reared from L. decemlineata on tomato and experienced on egg masses from tomato, did not display a distinct host preference. Within-egg mass parasitism (i.e., number of eggs per mass that were parasitized, probed, etc.) did not consistently differ among the three food plants. The implications of these data in parasitoid ecology and biological control programs for L. decemlineata are discussed.

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Résumé L'oophage, E. puttleri a été élevé à partir des oeufs de Leptinotarsa decemlineata et L. texana. Il a été mis en expérience sur l'une des 3 plantes consommées par L. decemlineata: Solanum tuberosum tuberosum, S. melongena et Lycopersicon esculentum. Des expériences de choix ont permis de déterminer ses préférences pour les différentes catégories d'oeufs. Le choix de l'oophage est influencé par l'espèce de Leptinotarsa sur laquelle il a été élevé. E. puttleri élevé sur oeufs de L. decemlineata récoltés sur un mélange des 3 solanées, et mis en présence d'un choix de groupes d'oeufs provenant de ces 3 plantes, a parasité préférentiellement les oeufs récoltés sur S. t. tuberosum; élevé à partir d'oeufs de L. texana récoltés sur S. elaeagnifolium, et mis en présence d'un mélange de pontes des 3 solanées, il a préféré parasiter les oeufs provenant de L. esculentum. Son choix a été influencé aussi par la plante qui l'avait conditionné. E. puttleri, élevé à partir de L. texana et mis en expérience sur des pontes provenant de S. t. tuberosum a préféré pondre sur les oeufs provenant de cette solanée. De même, élevé à partir d'oeufs de L. decemlineata pondus sur S. t. tuberosum, il a préféré pondre sur les oeufs provenant de cette plante. Cependant, les oophages élevés à partir d'oeufs de L. decemlineata provenant de L. esculentum, et mis en présence de pontes provenant de L. esculentum, n'ont pas préféré significativement ces oeufs au détriment de ceux provenant des autres solanées, bien que les pontes récoltées sur L. esculentum aient été parasitées plus fréquemment quand 2 des 3 pontes (une de chaque plante) avaient été sondées ou parasitées. Le parasitisme à l'intérieur d'une ponte (nombre d'oeufs de la ponte parasités, sondés, etc) ne varie pas significativement avec la solanée d'origine. La discussion a porté sur les conséquences de ces observations sur l'écologie de l'oophage et sur la lutte biologique contre L. decemlineata.

     

The influence of female age and host size on the sex ratio of the parasitoid Opius concolor

The sex ratio of the progeny of single females parasitizing large hosts favoured the females (sex ratio=0.26); but on small hosts favoured the males (0.73). No differences in mortality of the sexes were detected. The sex ratio was independent of female age when large hosts were used. The percentage of males observed in the progeny of the first day of female oviposition was significantly greater than the mean, irrespective of the age at which female oviposition began. When females were exposed to small hosts, a greater percentage of females was observed in the progeny from the last days of oviposition.

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Résumé L'influence de la taille de l'hôteret de l'âge de la femelle sur le taux sexuel de la descendance a été étudiée sur le parasitoïde Opius concolor Szépl.Le taux sexuel de la descendance des femelles isolées est favorable aux femelles (t.s.=0,26) quand elles ont à leur disposition des hôtes de grande taille, tandis qu'avec des hôtes petits le taux sexuel est favorable aux mâles (t.s.=0.73). On n'a pas détecté de mortalité différentielle des sexes.Les pourcentage de mâles obtenu le premier jour de ponte des femelles sur les hôtes de grande taille est significativement différent de la moyenne, indépendamment de l'âge de la femelle à ce moment. Cependant, sur des hôtes petits, bien que restant favorable aux mâles dans l'ensemble, une plus grande proportion de femelles à partir des premiers jours de ponte a pu être observée.

     

Specificity of chemical cues used by a specialist egg parasitoid during host location

Plant synomones and host kairomones are known to guide the egg parasitoid Oomyzus gallerucae to its specific host, the elm leaf beetle Xanthogaleruca luteola (= Pyrrhalta) (Muller) feeding upon elm leaves (Ulmus spp.). In this study, we investigated whether the activities of these plant synomones and kairomones are specific for the plant and herbivore species, respectively. Olfactometer and contact bioassays were used. In habitat location, O. gallerucae (Fonscolombe) is known to use synomones from Ulmus minor (Miller) that are induced by egg depositions of X. luteola. The attractiveness of such induced volatiles was shown to be specific both for the Ulmus species and the herbivore species depositing eggs. Neither leaves of U. glabra Hudson (= U. montana) carrying eggs of X. luteola nor leaves of U. minor (= U. campestris = U. procera) carrying eggs of the chrysomelid species Galeruca tanaceti L. emitted attractive synomones. O. gallerucae is also known to be attracted by volatile kairomones from faeces of X. luteola feeding on U. minor and to show prolonged antennal drumming when contacting substrates contaminated with these faeces. The kairomonal activity of the faeces was proved to be independent of the Ulmus species, since also faeces from elm leaf beetles feeding upon U. glabra emitted attractive volatiles. However, the faecal kairomones were specific for the herbivorous species, since faeces from a lepidopteran larva (Opisthograptis luteolata L.) feeding upon elm hardly elicited any antennal drumming in O. gallerucae. The egg parasitoid studied is known to recognize host eggs of X. luteola by contact kairomones extractable from the egg shell. O. gallerucae clearly differentiated between host eggs and eggs of another closely related chrysomelid species, Galerucella lineola L., as was shown by comparing duration of antennal drumming on host eggs and eggs of G. lineola.     

Egg-laying strategy under natural conditions of Leptopilina boulardi, a hymenopteran parasitoid of Drosophila spp

The hypothesis of optimal host species selection predicts that when a parasitoid has the choice between two host species, it will choose the species thay gives the best survival chances for its progeny. We confirmed this hypothesis by laboratory experiments with Leptopilina boulardi Barb. et al., a cynipid parasitoid which prefers Drosophila melanogaster Meigen (the host species most suitable for parasitoid survival) above D. simulans Sturt. As far as fitness parameters are concerned, the fertility of L. boulardi is higher with D. melanogaster; the egg laying can be spread out over a long period when this host is relatively scarce. This does not occur with D. simulans in which parasitic oviposition stops soon when this host is not abundant.Investigations of this foraging strategy were done under more complex natural conditions. We found that L. boulardi has a type III functional response with D. melanogaster only; furthermore, it seems that a switching effect may exist with this host. Parasitoid females appear to distribute their eggs more regularly on D. melanogaster, thus avoiding superparasitism. This seems to be independent of the relative frequency of this host. However, superparasitism of D. simulans did occur more frequently when this host was scarce.

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Stratégie de ponte de Leptopilina boulardi (hyménoptère parasite de drosophiles) dans les conditions naturelles

Résumé Le concept de réponse optimale d'un parasite vis-à-vis de l'hôte le plus favorable pour son développement demeure surtout théorique et n'a pu être vérifié que dans les conditions de laboratoire. Nous avons montré que Drosophila melanogaster s'avère être, par rapport à D. simulans, l'hôte le plus favorable pour le développement du cynipide parasite Leptopilina boulardi. Une étude sur le terrain a démontré que ce parasite présente une réponse fonctionnelle densité dépendante vis-à-vis de D. melanogaster et non vis-à-vis de D. simulans, avec un effet de bascule. D'autre part, il s'avère que ce parasite exploite beaucoup mieux son hôte, en évitant le superparasitisme, ceci étant démontré au laboratoire et dans la nature. Enfin, il apparaît qu'il est capable d'allonger sa période de ponte lorsque cet hôte est rare, ce qui ne se produit pas avec D. simulans.

     

Host plant species affects the quality of the generalist Trichoplusia ni as a host for the polyembryonic parasitoid Copidosoma floridanum

Diet of herbivorous insects can influence both the herbivores and their natural enemies. We examined the direct and indirect effects of diet on the interactions between the polyphagous herbivore Trichoplusia ni Hübner (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) and its polyembryonic parasitoid Copidosoma floridanum Ashmead (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae). To determine how host plant species and host plant iridoid glycoside content affect host caterpillars and their parasitoids, parasitized and unparasitized T. ni were given leaves of either Plantago lanceolata L., which contains the iridoid glycosides aucubin and catalpol, Plantago major L. (Plantaginaceae), which contains only aucubin, or Taraxacum officinale F.H. Wigg (Asteraceae), which contains neither. Survival of unparasitized T. ni was much lower when fed P. major compared with the other two host plants, whereas pupae were smallest when fed T. officinale and developed most slowly when fed P. lanceolata as larvae. Neither aucubin nor catalpol were detected in intact Plantago‐fed T. ni larvae or their hemolymph, and only trace amounts of aucubin were detected in frass, suggesting that these compounds are mostly metabolized in the midgut and are not encountered by the parasitoid. Copidosoma floridanum clutch size was almost doubled when reared from P. lanceolata‐fed T. ni compared with T. officinale‐fed larvae and tripled compared with P. major‐fed larvae, although the percent of parasitoids surviving to adulthood was uniformly high regardless of host diet. The observed variation in C. floridanum fitness among host diets is likely mediated by the effect of the diets on host quality, which in turn may be influenced more by other factors in the host plants than their iridoid glycoside profiles. Interactions between plant metabolites, generalist herbivores like T. ni, and their parasitoids may be predominantly indirect.     

Superparasitism and host size effects in Oomyzus sokolowskii, a parasitoid of diamondback moth

Many aspects of a parasitoid's biology may be affected by its host. Host size, for example, could affect parasitoid fitness, especially in gregarious parasitoids, in which the resource is used by multiple siblings. Oomyzus sokolowskii (Kurdjumov) (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) is a gregarious larval–pupal endoparasitoid of the diamondback moth, Plutella xylostella L. (Lepidoptera: Plutellidae), a major pest of crucifers worldwide, and is able to superparasitize the host. This study focuses on the hypothesis that because resource availability is higher in larger hosts, parasitoids developing in larger hosts will fare better. However, superparasitized hosts are expected to yield larger numbers of parasitoid offspring of smaller body size. Results showed that superparasitism increased the number of parasitoid offspring produced per host and increased offspring longevity, but decreased offspring body size. However, developmental time and sex ratio of parasitoid offspring was similar among hosts parasitized once, twice, or three times. Regardless of superparasitism, parasitoids emerging from larger hosts that were fed honey solution lived longer than similarly fed progeny from smaller hosts (36.4 vs. 22.1 days). The results partially support the hypothesis that Oomyzus gained fitness from an increase in host size; moreover, superparasitism seems advantageous for Oomyzus due to increased offspring numbers and longevity.     

Role of some epigenetic factors influencing the host suitability of Myzus persicae for the parasitoid Aphidius colemani

When a host is stung by a parasitoid female in the aphid-aphidiid association Myzus persiae Sulzer-Aphidius colemani Viereck, four host responses have been observed: 1) a host develops into a mummy, 2) it dies very soon after it was stung, 3) it develops a cellular immune response, 4) it shows no apparent perturbation subsequent to the sting. The ratios of the responses are clearly determined by the type, the number and the rank of the sting and also by the experience of the female. Some assumptions concerning the cause of the host response are discussed.

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Résumé Le devenir d'un puceron piqué par une femelle parasitoïde dans l'association Myzus persicae Sulzer-Aphidius colemani Viereck est clairement conditionné par différents facteurs associés à la séquence de piqûre. Quatre devenirs ont été régulièrement observés parmi tous les lots d'hôtes piqués; il s'agit d'une mommification classique aboutissant à l'émergence d'un parasitoïde adulte, d'une mort précoce, de l'apparition de profondes modifications anatomiques et physiologiques ou enfin, d'un développement apparemment sain du puceron. Les proportions de ces devenirs varient avec la nature, le nombre, le rang de la piqûre, ainsi qu'avec le passé de la femelle avant l'expérience. Par comparaison avec une piqûre classique, une piqûre peu profonde réduit le nombre de momies formées, mais surtout élimine toute mortalité avancée et favorise le devenir sain. Lorsqu'on augmente de un à trois le nombre de piqûres reçues par l'hôte, la probabilité d'échapper en apparence à un effet quelconque de la piqûre diminue, alors qu'en parallèle, c'est surtout celle de la mommification qui croît. Il existe de plus pour certaines femelles, une relation entre le rang de la piqûre et le devenir de l'hôte. Enfin, si une femelle a dans un premier temps piqué un puceron altéré, près de 90% des pucerons normaux qui sont ensuite piqués évoluent en momies. A partir de ces résultats, certaines hypothèses concernant la cause des différents devenirs sont avancées.

     

Biology, rearing and field release on Guam of Euplectrus maternus, a parasitoid of the fruit-piercing moth, Eudocima fullonia

The eulophid parasitoid, Euplectrus maternus, is a gregarious ectoparasitoid of the larvae of thefruit-piercing moth, Eudocima (Othreis) fullonia. This parasitoid is indigenous to India and was released into Guam in 1998–99 to aid in the biological control of E. fullonia, an important pest of ripeguava, banana, mango, pomegranate, litchi,papaya, tomato, orange and other fruit crops.In the laboratory, biology and rearing of E. maternus on the larvae of E. fulloniawere studied. In no-choice tests, ovipositionby E. maternus was significantly greateron first and second instar larvae than on thirdinstar larvae. However, in free-choice tests,oviposition by E. maternus wassignificantly greater on second instar larvae,followed by first and third instar larvae. Thisparasitoid did not lay eggs on later instars,either in no-choice or free-choice tests.Females laid a significantly greater number ofeggs (>80%) on the dorsal surface of thelarvae than on either lateral or ventralsurfaces (1 to 8%). In general, more eggs werelaid on abdominal segments 1–3 on larvalinstars one to three. The survival of theimmature stages (from egg to adult) of E. maternus on second instar E. fullonialarvae was 61%, which was significantlygreater than the survival rates on first andthird instar larvae (32% and 26%), indicatingthat second instar host larvae are ideal formass rearing of the parasitoid. Mated femaleE. maternus continuously laid eggs on thesecond instar larvae of E. fullonia forup to 30 days, but the greatest number of eggswere laid during the first week after exposure.When E. maternus laid more than two eggson host larva, more female progeny wereproduced, indicating female-biasedreproduction. Adult parasitoids lived longerwhen fed with a honey: water (50% w/v)solution than with pure honey. Similarly, thefecundity of females increased significantlywhen fed with the honey-water solution whencompared to feeding with pure honey. To date,E. maternus has not established in Guam.     

Catching Ariadne by her thread: how a parasitoid exploits the herbivore's marking trails to locate its host

Chemical signals that can be associated with the presence of a host insect often work as arrestants in close range host location by parasitoids, leading to longer searching times on patches where such signals are present. Our current view of parasitoid host location is that by prolonging the search times in patches, randomly searching parasitoids enhance their chance of detecting host insects. However, prolonged search times are not necessarily the only modification in parasitoid behaviour. In this study, we examine the exploitation of host-fruit marking pheromone of rose-hip flies, Rhagoletis basiolaOsten-Sacken (Diptera: Tephritidae) by the specialized egg-larval parasitoid Halticoptera rosae Burks (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae). We provide evidence that the instantaneous probability that a host egg will be located by a searching parasitoid wasp differs markedly between pheromone-marked and unmarked fruits. The arresting response to the marking pheromone, i.e., the prolonged time a wasp is willing to search on marked fruits, can only account for a small fraction of the difference in successful host location on marked and unmarked fruits. We further demonstrate that the time wasps require to locate the host egg is independent of the size of the rose-hip harbouring the fly egg, and thus is independent of the area the wasp potentially has to search. A comparison of our findings with results of different search algorithms for parasitoid wasps suggests that wasps use the fly's pheromone marking trail as a guide way to the fly's oviposition site and thus the host egg.     

The role of host species, age and defensive behaviour on ovipositional decisions in a solitary specialist and gregarious generalist parasitoid (Cotesia species)

The main objective of this study was to determine the extent to which host acceptance behaviour as related to host species, age, and defensive behaviour might explain the differences in host use that exist between two congeneric and sympatric species of parasitic wasps. Cotesia glomerata (L.) (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) is gregarious and generalist on several species of Pieridae, whereas C. rubecula (Marshall) is solitary and specific to Pieris rapae (L.). Cotesia species differed in their responses to host species (P. brassicae (L.), P. napi (L.) and P. rapae) and developmental stage (early and late 1st, 2nd and 3rd instars). In no-choice tests, host acceptance by C. rubecula was higher for p. rapae and females did not distinguish among the 6 host ages. In contrast, when foraging for P. brassicae and P. napi, C. rubecula females more readily attacked early first instar. Cotesia glomerata showed a higher degree of behavioural plasticity towards acceptance of Pieris host species and host age than did C. rubecula. Cotesia glomerata females parasitized the three Pieris species and showed higher acceptance of first and second instars over third instar. Oviposition success was also influenced by host defensive behaviour. The frequency and the effectiveness of defensive behaviour rose with increasing age of the host, P. brassicae being the most aggressive Pieris species. Furthermore, the mean duration of C. glomerata oviposition was significantly reduced by the defensive reactions of P. brassicae, which would likely affect parasitoid fitness as oviposition time is positively correlated to clutch size in C. glomerata. Acceptance frequencies corresponded well to field reports of Pieris-Cotesia associations and to patterns of parasitoid larval performance, suggesting that the acceptance phase might be used as a reliable indicator of Cotesia host-specificity.