Cultivation of Pleurotus ostreatus and other edible mushrooms

Pleurotus ostreatus is the second most cultivated edible mushroom worldwide after Agaricus bisporus. It has economic and ecological values and medicinal properties. Mushroom culture has moved toward diversification with the production of other mushrooms. Edible mushrooms are able to colonize and degrade a large variety of lignocellulosic substrates and other wastes which are produced primarily through the activities of the agricultural, forest, and food-processing industries. Particularly, P. ostreatus requires a shorter growth time in comparison to other edible mushrooms. The substrate used for their cultivation does not require sterilization, only pasteurization, which is less expensive. Growing oyster mushrooms convert a high percentage of the substrate to fruiting bodies, increasing profitability. P. ostreatus demands few environmental controls, and their fruiting bodies are not often attacked by diseases and pests, and they can be cultivated in a simple and cheap way. All this makes P. ostreatus cultivation an excellent alternative for production of mushrooms when compared to other mushrooms.     

Cultivation of the Dible Mushroom Lentinula edodes (Shiitake) in Pasteurized Wheat Straw – Alternative Use of Georthermal Energy in Mexico

Five edible Lentinula edodes strains were evaluated. The mushrooms were cultivated on a wheat straw substrate that was previously pasteurized by immersion in water heated by residual geothermal vapor, which was also used to warm incubation and production rooms. Finely chopped wheat straw (Triticum aestivum L.) was pasteurized and then spawned with supplemented spawn capable of supplying nutrients and enriching the substrate, with the expectation of yield improvement. The samples were incubated for 60 days before the production started and thus, the mushrooms produced had pileus diameters ranging from 5 to 20 cm. The yields fluctuated from 6.2 to 13.9 % (fresh weight of mushrooms/fresh weight of substrate). Biological efficiency ranged from 24.8 to 55.6 % (fresh weight of mushrooms/dry weight of substrate), while the production rate reached varied from 0.19 to 0.55 % (biological efficiency/production time starting from inoculation). The cultivation system evaluated here offers the possibility of lowering production costs by cultivating the mushroom on easily obtainable substrate and shortening the culture cycle. The efficiency of this use of geothermal energy and supplemented spawn for shiitake mushroom cultivation on non‐sterilized substrates was proven.     

Effect of culture parameters on the production of the edible mushroom <Emphasis Type="Italic">Grifola frondosa</Emphasis> (maitake) in tropical weathers

Hitherto, little effort has been directed to improve culture conditions for commercial development of maitake (Grifola frondosa), an edible and medicinal fungus, due to the short history of cultivation, particularly in tropical weathers. The purpose of this research was analyzing the environmental factors required for successful basidiome development on synthetic substrates in Colombia. We evaluated different cereal grains (corn, barley, sorghum and rice) for spawn production; and industrial by-products (such as coffee spent-ground and oak-sawdust) as substrates for mushroom production. Exploiting these residues for G. frondosa solid culturing would primarily provide edible mushroom and simultaneously help in resolving their disposal problem. The use of corn grains as substrate for spawn production results an important factor for reducing crop cycle time. A cold shock to 10°C was requisite for basidiome formation. Coffee spent-ground was a good substrate for mycelial growth, but not for mushroom production. When using oak sawdust plus corn bran as substrate, we obtained consistent yields with combined high biological efficiency (BE) (35.3%), best quality mushrooms, and a crop cycle of 12–14 weeks. The results achieved in this investigation contribute to expand the knowledge on this fungus, and compare favorably with previous works in the northern hemisphere with respect to BE, mushroom quality and crop cycle time.     

Applied modern biotechnology for cultivation of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Ganoderma</Emphasis> and development of their products

A white-rot basidiomycete Ganoderma spp. has long been used as a medicinal mushroom in Asia, and it has an array of pharmacological properties for immunomodulatory activity. There have been many reports about the bioactive components and their pharmacological properties. In order to analyze the current status of Ganoderma products, the detailed process of cultivation of Ganoderma spp. and development of their products are restated in this review article. These include the breeding, cultivating, extracting bioactive component, and processing Ganoderma products, etc. This article will expand people’s common knowledge on Ganoderma, and provide a beneficial reference for research and industrial production.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Agaricus blazei</Emphasis> production on non-composted substrates based on sunflower seed hulls and spent oyster mushroom substrate

Agaricus blazei Murrill is usually cultivated using the same biphasic composting method employed for A. bisporus. Because cultivation of A. blazei on traditional A. bisporus composts poses some disadvantages, non-composted substrates were studied for A. blazei cultivation. Mycelial growth rate and productive performance of A. blazei were evaluated on substrates containing sunflower seed hulls, Pleurotus spp. spent mushroom substrate, or their combination, in the absence or in the presence of different supplements (vermicompost, peat or brewery residues). Substrates were prepared by initially soaking them and then they were sterilized (1 atm for 120 min). In addition, each substrate’s degradation was measured after cultivation by obtaining the lignin, cellulose, hemicellulose, organic matter, total fiber, ash, carbon and nitrogen contents before spawn-run and at the end of two flushes of A. blazei. The cultivation of A. blazei on non-composted substrates is possible and with a low rate of contamination when using the spent mushroom substrate as the main component or combined 50:50 with sunflower seed hulls. In addition, the best yields were obtained on those substrates containing spent Pleurotus mushroom substrate with supplements and those mixtures with sunflower seed hulls and vermicompost. These yields were similar to those reported on composted substrates. Substrate changes in composition measured at the end of two flushes indicate that the lignin-hemicellulose fraction was preferentially used and that the substrates exhibiting the best yield showed greater biodegradation of lignin-hemicellulose fraction than the others did.     

Bioactive compounds and antioxidant activity exhibit high intraspecific variability in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pleurotus ostreatus</Emphasis> mushrooms and correlate well with cultivation performance parameters

Experimental data related with oyster mushroom production and nutritional properties usually derive from the examination of only one strain, and hence their representativeness/usefulness is questionable. This work aims at assessing intraspecific variability in Pleurotus ostreatus by studying 16 strains, under the same conditions, in respect to essential cultivation and mushroom quality aspects, and by defining the impact of intrinsic/genetic factors on such parameters. Hence, mushroom yield, earliness, crop length, biological efficiency, productivity, and their content in selected macro and microconstituents (e.g. fatty acids, sterols, individual phenolic compounds, terpenic acids, glucans) as well as their antioxidant properties (i.e., antiradical activity, ferric reducing potential, inhibition of serum oxidation) were assayed. The effect of intrinsic/genetic factors was evident, especially as regards earliness, yield of each production flush and mushroom weight, whereas biological efficiency was not particularly influenced by the cultivated strain. Moreover, phenolics, ergosterol and antiradical activity demonstrated significant variability among strains in contrast to what was observed for fatty acids, β-glucans and ferric reducing potential. The observed heterogeneity reveals the limitations of using a low number of strains for evaluating mushroom production and/or their content in bioactive compounds, and as evidenced, it is valuable for breeding and commercial purposes.     

我国食用菌遗传学的发展及展望

食用菌遗传学是食用菌学科体系的重要分支之一,40年来我国食用菌遗传学研究紧密围绕为育种服务、最新分子生物学技术的应用和生产实践中的科学问题的解决等主题开展了众多科学活动.为了促进食用菌遗传学研究的系统性和全面性,本文梳理出9个方面的研究主题,主要包括食用菌种质资源调查和地方品种研究、食用菌农艺性状控制基因定位和分子辅助...     

Utilization of new naturally occurring strains and supplementation to improve the biological efficiency of the edible mushroom <Emphasis Type="Italic">Agrocybe cylindracea</Emphasis>

To evaluate the importance of searching new naturally occurring strains to raise yields in mushroom production, eight wild and four commercial strains of Agrocybe cylindracea were cultivated on wheat straw. The highest biological efficiencies (BE) (54.5-72.4%) were obtained with three wild and two commercial strains when cultured on non-supplemented wheat straw. Rolled oats or soybean flour supplementation were tested using three selected strains, increasing BEs up to 1.2, 0.5 and 0.7-fold, respectively. This effect of supplementation was stronger in the Asiatic wild strain, yielding up to 41.1 and 30% more than the two other strains with rolled oats and soybean flour, respectively. The Asiatic wild strain cultivated with soybean flour supplementation achieved an average biological efficiency of 179%, to our knowledge, the highest reported for this species. These results show the importance of searching for new naturally occurring strains in combination with supplemented wheat straw substrate for raising yields in A. cylindracea cultivation.     

Physiologic response of Agaricus subrufescens using different casing materials and practices applied in the cultivation of Agaricus bisporus

Casing materials and practices used in the cultivation of Agaricus bisporus were evaluated in the cultivation of Agaricus subrufescens, using the best techniques for optimization of production, including the possibility of re-casing of the compost for the production of a second crop of mushroom. Casing based on peat moss, loam soil or coir was compared to casing material mixed with or without spawn-run compost. Based on the results, we conclude that the casing layer used in the cultivation of A. subrufescens should not necessarily be the same as that used in the cultivation of A. bisporus. For the tested strain cultivated with loam soil as casing layer, the ruffling technique is highly superior to CACing and should be pursued in further research. The re-casing of compost in new cycles showed good results suggesting that the currently used compost could be improved.     

Effects of different levels of wheat bran, rice bran and maize powder supplementation with saw dust on the production of shiitake mushroom (Lentinus edodes (Berk.) Singer)

The cultivation of shiitake mushroom (Lentinus edodes) is increasing rapidly in Bangladesh due to its nutritional and medicinal importance with excellent flavor and longer shelf life. With the aim of increased production, we have cultivated L. edodes on saw dust (SD) supplemented with different levels (10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35% and 40%) of wheat bran (WB), rice bran (RB), maize powder (MP) and their combination (WB+RB+MP = 1:1:1) to investigate the growth, yield and quality of this mushroom. Most of the growth, yield and quality parameters varied significantly when mushrooms were cultivated with different levels of supplementation. The yield of mushroom was increased with the level of each supplementation upto a certain level, and then decreased. SD supplemented with 25% WB produced the highest number of fruiting bodies (34.8/500 g packet), highest biological yield (153.3/500 g packet), and biological efficiency (76.6%) of L. edodes. But the yield of the best quality mushroom was observed on SD with 40% WB supplementation; however, the qualities were not always supplementation dose dependent. In this study, we report that 25% WB supplementation with SD may be very effective for higher yield and 40% WB supplementation for better quality of L. edodes.     

Lignocellulolytic enzyme activity,substrate utilization,and mushroom yield by <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pleurotus ostreatus</Emphasis> cultivated on substrate containing anaerobic digester solids

Solid waste from anaerobic digestion of litter from the commercial production of broiler chickens has limited use as fertilizer. Its disposal is a major problem for digester operators who are seeking alternative use for anaerobic digester solids, also referred to as solid waste (SW). The use of SW as substrates for the cultivation of Pleurotus ostreatus strain MBFBL400 was investigated. Lignocellulolytic enzymes activity, substrate utilization, and mushroom yield were evaluated in ten different substrate combinations (SCs) containing varying amounts of solid waste, wheat straw, and millet. Nutritional content of mushrooms produced on the different substrates was also determined. Substrates containing 70–80% wheat straw, 10–20% SW, and 10–20% millet were found to produce the highest mushroom yield (874.8–958.3 g/kg). Loss of organic matter in all SCs tested varied from 45.8% to 56.2%, which had positive correlation with the biological efficiency. Laccase, peroxidase, and carboxymethylcellulase (CMCase) activities were higher before fruiting, whereas xylanase showed higher activities after mushroom fruiting. SW increased the nutritional content in mushrooms harvested, and the combination of wheat straw and SW with millet significantly improved mushroom yield. Our findings demonstrated the possibility of utilizing anaerobic digester solids in mushroom cultivation. The application of SW as such could improve the financial gains in the overall economy of anaerobic digester plants.     

Cultivation of different strains of king oyster mushroom (Pleurotus eryngii) on saw dust and rice straw in Bangladesh

Pleurotus eryngii is a popular mushroom due to its excellent consistency of cap and stem, culinary qualities and longer shelf life. In Bangladesh, where Pleurotus mushrooms are very popular, P. eryngii may take position among the consumers, but currently this mushroom is not cultivated in large scale there. In this study, 3 strains of P. eryngii such as Pe-1 (native to Bangladesh), Pe-2 (germplasm collected from China) and Pe-3 (germplasm collected from Japan) were cultivated on saw dust and rice straw and their growth and yield parameters were investigated. Pe-1 on saw dust showed the highest biological yield and efficiency (73.5%) than other strains. Also, the mycelium run rate and number of fruiting bodies were higher in Pe-1 than other two strains. The quality of mushroom strains was near about similar. On saw dust, the yield and efficiency were better than those cultivated on rice straw, however, on straw; the mushroom fruiting bodies were larger in size. This study shows the prospects of P. eryngii cultivation in Bangladesh and suggests further study in controlled environment for higher yield and production.     

Cultivation of Oudemansiella tanzanica nom. prov. on agricultural solid wastes in Tanzania

The edible mushroom Oudemansiella tanzanica nom. prov., which is new to science, has been studied as a potential crop to reduce agricultural solid wastes and increase domestic mushroom production. The substrates sawdust, sisal waste and paddy straw supplemented with chicken manure resulted in the highest biological efficiencies of any mushroom cultivated in Tanzania so far. In addition, the mushroom has one of the shortest cultivation cycles at 24 d. Despite the fact that the mushroom extracts substantial amounts of nutrients, the spent substrate can be used as fodder, as a soil conditioner and fertilizer and in bioremediation.     

Evaluation of indigenous potent mushroom growth promoting bacteria (MGPB) on Agaricus bisporus production

Mushrooms such as Agaricus bisporus, are cultivated for food worldwide. Fruit body initiation in Agaricus bisporus is a phase change from the vegetative to the reproductive stage which depends on the presence of a casing layer with particular physical, chemical and microbiological properties. The phase change is achieved practically by environmental manipulation and the presence of naturally occurring bacteria such as Pseuodomonas putida. In this study, 274 individual bacterial isolates were collected by screening the casing layer of 14 edible mushroom farms. The isolates were analysed with respect to biochemical properties, organic and inorganic phosphate solubilization, production of siderophore and growth in the presence of volatile compound of 1-octen-3-ol. It was found that approximately 97% of the strains were able to grow in the presence of 1-octen-3-ol and 36% were able to solubilize phosphorus. Among the isolates, 23 strains were selected as potent mushroom growth promoting bacteria (MGPB) for inoculation of the casing layer. Field experiments using these strains showed various promoting effects on production of mushroom. Finally, 2 strains (strains Bt4 and Ps7) showing the highest increase in A. bisporus production, were characterized as Pseuodomonas putida by molecular methods and identified as the best suited growth promoting inoculants for application in production farms for increasing the mushroom yield.     

Lecanicillium fungicola: causal agent of dry bubble disease in white‐button mushroom

Lecanicillium fungicola causes dry bubble disease in commercially cultivated mushroom. This review summarizes current knowledge on the biology of the pathogen and the interaction between the pathogen and its most important host, the white‐button mushroom, Agaricus bisporus. The ecology of the pathogen is discussed with emphasis on host range, dispersal and primary source of infection. In addition, current knowledge on mushroom defence mechanisms is reviewed. Taxonomy: Lecanicillium fungicola (Preuss) Zare and Gams: Kingdom Fungi; Phylum Ascomycota; Subphylum Pezizomycotina; Class Sordariomycetes; Subclass Hypocreales; Order Hypocreomycetidae; Family Cordycipitaceae; genus Lecanicillium. Host range: Agaricus bisporus, Agaricus bitorquis and Pleurotus ostreatus. Although its pathogenicity for other species has not been established, it has been isolated from numerous other basidiomycetes. Disease symptoms: Disease symptoms vary from small necrotic lesions on the caps of the fruiting bodies to partially deformed fruiting bodies, called stipe blow‐out, or totally deformed and undifferentiated masses of mushroom tissue, called dry bubble. The disease symptoms and severity depend on the time point of infection. Small necrotic lesions result from late infections on the fruiting bodies, whereas stipe blow‐out and dry bubble are the result of interactions between the pathogen and the host in the casing layer. Economic importance: Lecanicillium fungicola is a devastating pathogen in the mushroom industry and causes significant losses in the commercial production of its main host, Agaricus bisporus. Annual costs for mushroom growers are estimated at 2–4% of total revenue. Reports on the disease originate mainly from North America and Europe. Although China is the main producer of white‐button mushrooms in the world, little is known in the international literature about the impact of dry bubble disease in this region. Control: The control of L. fungicola relies on strict hygiene and the use of fungicides. Few chemicals can be used for the control of dry bubble because the host is also sensitive to fungicides. Notably, the development of resistance of L. fungicola has been reported against the fungicides that are used to control dry bubble disease. In addition, some of these fungicides may be banned in the near future. Useful websites: http://www.mycobank.org ; http://www.isms.biz ; http://www.cbs.knaw.nl     

Origins and Dispersal of Cultivated Vanilla (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Vanilla planifolia</Emphasis> Jacks. [Orchidaceae])<Superscript>1</Superscript>

Origins and Dispersal of Cultivated Vanilla (Vanilla planifolia Jacks. [Orchidaceae]). Vanilla is a clonally propagated crop originating from Mesoamerica. Information regarding the circumstances under which vanilla cultivation began is incomplete. Presumably, the Totonac people of Papantla (north-central Veracruz, Mexico) were the earliest to cultivate vanilla; however, the oldest reports of vanilla use relate to the pre-Columbian Maya of southeastern Mexico/Central America, where vanilla was a cacao-beverage spice. We utilized Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism (AFLP) marker diversity to infer the origins and relationships among cultivated and non-cultivated vanilla in Mesoamerica and on islands in the Indian Ocean, which comprise today’s principal production regions of vanilla. Our results suggest that, genetically, vanilla cultivated outside of Mesoamerica is most closely related to cultivated stock from Papantla; whereas unique clones of V. planifolia are found in non-cultivated and cultivated individuals from elsewhere in Mesoamerica. This is consistent with a single origin for cultivated vanilla outside of Mexico, along with multiple origins for cultivated material within Mexico. These data suggest that vestiges of pre-Columbian Maya vanilla cultivars are not found in commercial production today.     

Modeling of lutein production by heterotrophic <Emphasis Type="Italic">Chlorella</Emphasis> in batch and fed-batch cultures

Chlorella is a promising alternative resource of lutein (xanthophyll) production as it can be cultivated heterotrophically in fermentors. In this paper, a kinetic model for lutein production by heterotrophic Chlorella pyrenoidosa was developed based on batch cultivations in 250-ml flasks and a 19-l fermentor. The model was validated by experimental data from two fed-batch cultivations performed in the same fermentor. The dynamic behavior of lutein production by C. pyrenoidosa with various concentrations of glucose and nitrogen was analyzed based on the kinetic model. Model-based analyses suggested that glucose concentrations between 5 and 24 g/l and nitrogen concentrations between 0.7 and 12 g/l during the cultivation were favorable for lutein production by heterotrophic C. pyrenoidosa. It also showed that fed-batch cultivations are more suitable for efficient production of lutein than batch ones. The results obtained in this study may contribute to commercial lutein production by heterotrophic Chlorella.     

The effects of elicitation on the expression of key enzyme genes and on production of tropane alkaloids in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Anisodus acutangulus</Emphasis> plant

Tropane alkaloids (TAs) including hyoscyamine, anisodamine, anisodine and scopolamine are widely used as anticholinergic agents, which act on the parasympathetic nervous system, and their clinical demands are increasing rapidly. Anisodus acutangulus is a solanaceous perennial plant that is endemic to China with good potential for TA production and classified as an endangered species in China. Therefore there is a need to improve the TA production in this resource plant by biology methods. In our research, three different important elicitors including methyl jasmonate (MJ), yeast elicitor (YE) and abscisic acid (ABA) were used to study their effects on TA production, and genes expressions in A. acutangulus plant under each treatment were examined. The results revealed that TA production was induced by all the three treatments. However, its quantity varies with inducers used. The effect induced by MJ and YE were significant, while the effect induced by ABA was not obviously. To our knowledge, this is the first report on the relationship between TA production and genes expression profile induced by different elicitors in cultivated A. acutangulus plant, which should provide some useful information on how to improve TA production with the cultivated A. acutangulus plant in the near future.     

Neuroprotective Potential and Chemical Profile of Alternatively Cultivated Ganoderma lucidum Basidiocarps

Various neurodegenerative diseases are the main challenges to the modern medicine and there is a great need for novel, natural, neuroprotective agents. Ganoderma lucidum is a well‐known medicinal mushroom, which health benefits have been confirmed by numerous studies. As demand for its basidiocarps is increased and traditional cultivation on hardwoods is not environmentally friendly and economically justified, finding of alternative substrates is necessary. The aim of the study was to assess the effect of alternative cultivation substrates on the chemical profile of G. lucidum basidiocarps and their capacity to inhibit acetylcholinesterase and tyrosinase, which higher activity is directly associated with neurodegenerative processes. Extracts of basidiocarps cultivated on alternative substrates, especially on clear wheat straw, showed significantly higher inhibition capacities than extracts of commercially‐grown ones. These extracts were considerably different chemically from commercial basidiocarps extracts and even nine new compounds were isolated from them. Our results suggest that cultivation substrate greatly affect the chemical profile and neuroprotective capacity of obtained basidiocarps and wheat straw is a promising cultivation substrate.     

Application of solid waste from anaerobic digestion of poultry litter in Agrocybe aegerita cultivation: mushroom production, lignocellulolytic enzymes activity and substrate utilization

The degradation and utilization of solid waste (SW) from anaerobic digestion of poultry litter by Agrocybe aegerita was evaluated through mushroom production, loss of organic matter (LOM), lignocellulolytic enzymes activity, lignocellulose degradation and mushroom nutrients content. Among the substrate combinations (SCs) tested, substrates composed of 10–20% SW, 70–80% wheat straw and 10% millet was found to produce the highest mushroom yield (770.5 and 642.9 g per 1.5 kg of substrate). LOM in all SCs tested varied between 8.8 and 48.2%. A. aegerita appears to degrade macromolecule components (0.6–21.8% lignin, 33.1–55.2% cellulose and 14–53.9% hemicellulose) during cultivation on the different SCs. Among the seven extracellular enzymes monitored, laccase, peroxidase and CMCase activities were higher before fruiting; while xylanase showed higher activities after fruiting. A source of carbohydrates (e.g., millet) in the substrate is needed in order to obtain yield and biological efficiency comparable to other commercially cultivated exotic mushrooms.