Immunoproteomic analysis of the protective response obtained from vaccination with Candida albicans ecm33 cell wall mutant in mice

Systemic candidiasis remains a major cause of disease and death, particularly among immunocompromised patients. The cell wall of Candida albicans defines the interface between host and pathogen and surface proteins are major elicitors of host immune responses during candidiasis. The C. albicans ecm33 mutant (RML2U) presents an altered cell wall, which entails an increase in the outermost protein layer. Vaccination of BALB/c mice with RML2U mutant protected them from a subsequent lethal infection with virulent strain SC5314 in a systemic candidiasis model. Using immunoproteomics (2-DE followed by Immunoblotting) we detected 29 immunoreactive proteins specifically recognized by antibodies from vaccinated mice sera, six of which are described as immunogenic for the first time (Gnd1p, Cit1p, Rpl10Ep, Yst1p, Cys4p, Efb1p). Furthermore, identification of wild type and mutant cell surface proteome (surfome), confirmed us that the mutant surfome presented a larger number of proteins than the wild type. Interestingly, proteins exclusively identified in the mutant surfome (Met6p, Eft2p, Tkl1p, Rpl10Ep, Atp1p, Atp2p) were also detected as immunogenic, supporting the idea that their surface location enhances their immunoprotective capacity.     

Horizontal transmission of Candida albicans and evidence of a vaccine response in mice colonized with the fungus

Disseminated candidiasis is the third leading nosocomial blood stream infection in the United States and is often fatal. We previously showed that disseminated candidiasis was preventable in normal mice by immunization with either a glycopeptide or a peptide synthetic vaccine, both of which were Candida albicans cell wall derived. A weakness of these studies is that, unlike humans, mice do not have a C. albicans GI flora and they lack Candida serum antibodies. We examined the influence of C. albicans GI tract colonization and serum antibodies on mouse vaccination responses to the peptide, Fba, derived from fructose bisphosphate aldolase which has cytosolic and cell wall distributions in the fungus. We evaluated the effect of live C. albicans in drinking water and antimicrobial agents on establishment of Candida colonization of the mouse GI tract. Body mass, C. albicans in feces, and fungal-specific serum antibodies were monitored longitudinally. Unexpectedly, C. albicans colonization occurred in mice that received only antibiotics in their drinking water, provided that the mice were housed in the same room as intentionally colonized mice. The fungal strain in unintentionally colonized mice appeared identical to the strain used for intentional GI-tract colonization. This is the first report of horizontal transmission and spontaneous C. albicans colonization in mice. Importantly, many Candida-colonized mice developed serum fungal-specific antibodies. Despite the GI-tract colonization and presence of serum antibodies, the animals made antibodies in response to the Fba immunogen. This mouse model has potential for elucidating C. albicans horizontal transmission and for exploring factors that induce host defense against disseminated candidiasis. Furthermore, a combined protracted GI-tract colonization with Candida and the possibility of serum antibody responses to the presence of the fungus makes this an attractive mouse model for testing the efficacy of vaccines designed to prevent human disseminated candidiasis.     

Murine model of concurrent oral and vaginal Candida albicans colonization to study epithelial host-pathogen interactions

We report the creation of a new low-estrogen murine model of concurrent oral and vaginal C. albicans colonization that resembles human candidal carriage at both mucosal sites. Weekly estrogen administration of 5 microg intramuscular and subcutaneously was optimal for enhancement of oral colonization and was essential for vaginal colonization. In BALB/c mice, a number of C. albicans clinical isolates (n=3) colonized both oral and/or vaginal sites, but only strain 529L colonized 100% of mice persistently for over 5 weeks. Laboratory strains SC5314 and NCPF 3153 did not colonize the model; however, NCPF 3156 showed vaginal colonization up to week 5. Prior passaging through mice enhanced subsequent colonization of SC5314. Intranasal immunization with a C. albicans virulence antigen (secreted aspartyl proteinase 2) significantly reduced or abolished the fungal burden orally and vaginally by week 2 and 7. Our concurrent model of mucosal colonization reduces the numbers of experimental mice by half, can be used to assess potential vaccine candidates, and permits the detailed analysis of host-fungal interactions during the natural state of Candida colonization.     

Niche-Specific Requirement for Hyphal Wall protein 1 in Virulence of Candida albicans

Specialized Candida albicans cell surface proteins called adhesins mediate binding of the fungus to host cells. The mammalian transglutaminase (TG) substrate and adhesin, Hyphal wall protein 1 (Hwp1), is expressed on the hyphal form of C. albicans where it mediates fungal adhesion to epithelial cells. Hwp1 is also required for biofilm formation and mating thus the protein functions in both fungal-host and self-interactions. Hwp1 is required for full virulence of C. albicans in murine models of disseminated candidiasis and of esophageal candidiasis. Previous studies correlated TG activity on the surface of oral epithelial cells, produced by epithelial TG (TG1), with tight binding of C. albicans via Hwp1 to the host cell surfaces. However, the contribution of other Tgs, specifically tissue TG (TG2), to disseminated candidiasis mediated by Hwp1 was not known. A newly created hwp1 null strain in the wild type SC5314 background was as virulent as the parental strain in C57BL/6 mice, and virulence was retained in C57BL/6 mice deleted for Tgm2 (TG2). Further, the hwp1 null strains displayed modestly reduced virulence in BALB/c mice as did strain DD27-U1, an independently created hwp1Δ/Δ in CAI4 corrected for its ura3Δ defect at the URA3 locus. Hwp1 was still needed to produce wild type biofilms, and persist on murine tongues in an oral model of oropharyngeal candidiasis consistent with previous studies by us and others. Finally, lack of Hwp1 affected the translocation of C. albicans from the mouse intestine into the bloodstream of mice. Together, Hwp1 appears to have a minor role in disseminated candidiasis, independent of tissue TG, but a key function in host- and self-association to the surface of oral mucosa.     

Characteristics of a strain of C. albicans resistant to polyene antibiotics]

It was found that a resistant strain R2 of C. albicans obtained as a result of passages on media containing increasing concentrations of amphotericin B differed from the initial strain by its lower pathogenicity. Treatment of the infection caused by the resistant strain on modeling of candidiasis in mice was not successful. The decrease in the average life span of the mice infected with the resistant strain R2 and treated with amphotericin B was lower than that in the control animals and such indices of the disease as the levels of the kidney dissemination and the cell vegetation even increased under the effect of amphotericin B. The results of the study suggest that the resistant strain R2 of C. albicans depend on amphotericin B in the host. The data obtained emphasize the necessity of determinining the antibiotic sensitivity of C. albicans strains isolated from patients.     

白念珠菌抗氧化基因体外表达研究

目的检测白念珠菌体外抗氧化及调节转录的基因表达情况,进一步了解白念珠菌抗氧化机制在体外生长状态下的作用。方法选取白念珠菌标准株sc5314、3株临床分离保存株及7例临床念珠菌性阴道炎分泌物分离株（白念珠菌）,接种培养鉴定为白念珠菌后,分别将体外SDB振荡培养2 h、6 h、24 h、72 h、120 d的菌液（含未培养0h）,用Trizol法提取总RNA,反转录为cDNA后进行实时荧光定量PCR,检测体外各时间点抗氧化基因及抗氧化转录因子的基因表达情况,运用Ct值比较法进行表达量的相对定量分析。结果与0 h相比,体外6 hSOD2表达增加7.47倍,经Wilcoxon配对符号秩和检验显示P值小于0.01,差异具有统计学意义。其他各基因2 h及6 h分别与0 h相比P值均〉0.01,其表达差异不具有统计学意义。体外培养1 d后各基因表达明显增加,CaHog1、CAP1、CAT及SOD5在第3天达最高,分别为24.23、3.34、33.64及14.72倍;SOD2在第1天达最高为68.95倍;CaSkn7在第5天达最高为7.21倍。经Wilcoxon配对符号秩和检验显示SOD5第1天P值为0.013,其余基因表达P均〈0.01,表达差异具有统计学意义。结论当外界营养逐渐耗竭时,白念珠菌会动态加强抗氧化基因的表达,以抵抗机体内、外产生的氧化压力,其中SOD2可能是最早增加表达的抗氧化基因,3条抗氧化感受通路的转录调节基因均有增加表达,提示3条抗氧化感受通路在适应体外营养限制过程中起了重要作用。     

A family of oligopeptide transporters is required for growth of Candida albicans on proteins

The human fungal pathogen Candida albicans can use proteins as the sole source of nitrogen for growth. The secretion of aspartic proteinases, which have been shown to contribute to virulence of C. albicans, allows the fungus to digest host proteins to produce peptides that must be taken up into the cell by specific transporters. To understand in more detail how C. albicans utilizes proteins as a nitrogen source, we undertook a comprehensive analysis of oligopeptide transporters encoded in the C. albicans genome. We identified eight OPT genes encoding putative oligopeptide transporters, almost all of which are represented by polymorphic alleles in strain SC5314. Expression of these genes was differentially induced when C. albicans was grown in YCB-BSA medium, which contains bovine serum albumin as the sole nitrogen source. Whereas deletion of single OPT genes in strain SC5314 did not affect its ability to utilize proteins as a nitrogen source, opt123delta triple mutants had a severe growth defect in YCB-BSA which was rescued by reintroduction of a single copy of OPT1, OPT2 or OPT3. In addition, forced expression of OPT4 or OPT5 under control of the ADH1 promoter also restored growth of an opt123delta mutant, demonstrating that at least OPT1-OPT5 encode functional peptide transporters. The various oligopeptide transporters differ in their substrate preferences, as shown by the ability of strains expressing specific OPT genes to grow on peptides of defined length and sequence. We present evidence that in addition to the known role of oligopeptide transporters in the uptake of tetra- and pentapeptides these proteins can also transport longer peptides up to at least eight amino acids in length, ensuring an efficient utilization of the various peptides produced via endoproteolytic digestion of proteins by the secreted aspartic proteinases. As even transporters encoded by polymorphic alleles of a single gene exhibited differences in their efficiency to take up specific peptides, the oligopeptide transporters represent an example for how the evolution of gene families containing differentially expressed and functionally optimized members increases the nutritional versatility and, presumably, the adaptation of C. albicans to different host niches.     

Urea Amidolyase (DUR1,2) Contributes to Virulence and Kidney Pathogenesis of Candida albicans

The intracellular enzyme urea amidolyase (Dur1,2p) enables C. albicans to utilize urea as a sole nitrogen source. Because deletion of the DUR1,2 gene reduces survival of C. albicans co-cultured with a murine macrophage cell line, we investigated the role of Dur1,2p in pathogenesis using a mouse model of disseminated candidiasis. A dur1,2Δ/dur1,2Δ strain was significantly less virulent than the wild-type strain, showing significantly higher survival rate, better renal function, and decreased and less sustained fungal colonization in kidney and brain. Complementation of the mutant restored virulence. DUR1,2 deletion resulted in a milder host inflammatory reaction. Immunohistochemistry, flow cytometry, and magnetic resonance imaging showed decreased phagocytic infiltration into infected kidneys. Systemic cytokine levels of wild-type mice infected with the dur1,2 mutant showed a more balanced systemic pro-inflammatory cytokine response. Host gene expression and protein analysis in infected kidneys revealed parallel changes in the local immune response. Significant differences were observed in the kidney IL-1 inflammatory pathway, IL-15 signaling, MAP kinase signaling, and the alternative complement pathway. We conclude that Dur1,2p is important for kidney colonization during disseminated candidiasis and contributes to an unbalanced host inflammatory response and subsequent renal failure. Therefore, this Candida-specific enzyme may represent a useful drug target to protect the host from kidney damage associated with disseminated candidiasis.     

Carbonyl cyanide-m-chlorophenyl hydrazone-resistant Escherichia coli mutant that exhibits a temperature-sensitive unc phenotype.

Two spontaneous Escherichia coli mutant strains which are resistant to an oxidative phosphorylation uncoupler, carbonyl cyanide-m-chlorophenyl hydrazone, were isolated. Strain CM22 (ccr-2) was resistant to another uncoupler, pentachlorophenol, and to the inhibitors of proton-translocating ATPase, namely tributyltin and sodium azide. Carbonyl cyanide-m-chlorophenyl hydrazone or pentachlorophenol administered to cell suspensions of strain CM22 did not cause a pH change induced by H+ influx, and a similar result was obtained with everted particles. The respiratory rate of strain CM22 with succinate was twice that of wild-type strain KH434. When carbonyl cyanide-m-chlorophenyl hydrazone was administered, a stimulation of O2 uptake was observed in wild-type strain KH434 but not in the mutant strain CM22. Strain CM22 did not grow on succinate at 42 degrees C. Isolation of a true revertant at a frequency of 10(-8) demonstrated that the pleiotropic phenotype was induced by a single mutation. P1 transduction indicated that the mutant allele, ccr-2, was cotransduced with the ilv genes at a frequency of about 55%.     

Resveratrol lacks antifungal activity against Candida albicans

The putative candicidal activity of resveratrol is currently a matter of controversy. Here, the antifungal activity as well as the antioxidant response of resveratrol against Candida albicans, have been tested in a set of strains with a well-established genetic background At the doses usually employed in antifungal tests (10-40 μg/ml), resveratrol has no effect on the exponential growth of the C. albicans CAI.4 strain, a tenfold increase (400 μg/ml) was required in order to record a certain degree of cell killing, which was negligible in comparison with the strong antifungal effect caused by the addition of amphotericin B (5 μg/ml). An identical pattern was recorded in the prototrophic strains of C. albicans SC5314 and RM-100, whereas the oxidative sensitive trehalose-deficient mutant (tps1/tps1 strain) was totally refractory to the presence of resveratrol. In turn, the serum-induced yeast-to-hypha transition remained unaffected upon addition of different concentrations of resveratrol. Determination of endogenous trehalose and catalase activity, two antioxidant markers in C. albicans; revealed no significant changes in their basal contents induced by resveratrol. Collectively, our results seem to dismiss a main antifungal role as well as the therapeutic application of resveratrol against the infections caused by C. albicans.     

Deletion of the Candida albicans PIR32 Results in Increased Virulence, Stress Response, and Upregulation of Cell Wall Chitin Deposition

Candida albicans is a common opportunistic pathogen that causes a wide variety of diseases in a human immunocompromised host leading to death. In a pathogen, cell wall proteins are important for stability as well as for acting as antigenic determinants and virulence factors. Pir32 is a cell wall protein and member of the Pir protein family previously shown to be upregulated in response to macrophage contact and whose other member, Pir1, was found to be necessary for cell wall rigidity. The purpose of this study is to characterize Pir32 by generating a homozygous null strain and comparing the phenotype of the null with that of the wild-type parental strain as far as filamentation, virulence in a mouse model of disseminated candidiasis, resistance to oxidative stress and cell wall disrupting agents, in addition to adhesion, biofilm capacities, and cell wall chitin content. Our mutant was shown to be hyperfilamentous, resistant to sodium dodecyl sulfate, hydrogen peroxide, sodium chloride, and more virulent in a mouse model when compared to the wild type. These results were unexpected, considering that most cell wall mutations weaken the wall and render it more susceptible to external stress factors and suggests the possibility of a cell surface compensatory mechanism. As such, we measured cell wall chitin deposition and found a twofold increase in the mutant, possibly explaining the above-observed phenotypes.     

Host cell invasion and virulence mediated by Candida albicans Ssa1

Candida albicans Ssa1 and Ssa2 are members of the HSP70 family of heat shock proteins that are expressed on the cell surface and function as receptors for antimicrobial peptides such as histatins. We investigated the role of Ssa1 and Ssa2 in mediating pathogenic host cell interactions and virulence. A C. albicans ssa1Δ/Δ mutant had attenuated virulence in murine models of disseminated and oropharyngeal candidiasis, whereas an ssa2Δ/Δ mutant did not. In vitro studies revealed that the ssa1Δ/Δ mutant caused markedly less damage to endothelial cells and oral epithelial cell lines. Also, the ssa1Δ/Δ mutant had defective binding to endothelial cell N-cadherin and epithelial cell E-cadherin, receptors that mediate host cell endocytosis of C. albicans. As a result, this mutant had impaired capacity to induce its own endocytosis by endothelial cells and oral epithelial cells. Latex beads coated with recombinant Ssa1 were avidly endocytosed by both endothelial cells and oral epithelial cells, demonstrating that Ssa1 is sufficient to induce host cell endocytosis. These results indicate that Ssa1 is a novel invasin that binds to host cell cadherins, induces host cell endocytosis, and is critical for C. albicans to cause maximal damage to host cells and induce disseminated and oropharyngeal disease.     

Candida albicans protein kinase CK2 governs virulence during oropharyngeal candidiasis

To identify Candida albicans genes whose proteins are necessary for host cell interactions and virulence, a collection of C. albicans insertion mutants was screened for strains with reduced capacity to damage endothelial cells in vitro. This screen identified CKA2. CKA2 and its homologue CKA1 encode the catalytic subunits of the protein kinase CK2. cka2delta/cka2delta strains of C. albicans were constructed and found to have significantly reduced capacity to damage both endothelial cells and an oral epithelial cell line in vitro. Although these strains invaded endothelial cells similarly to the wild-type strain, they were defective in oral epithelial cell invasion. They were also hypersusceptible to hydrogen peroxide, but not to high salt or to cell wall damaging agents. A cka1delta/cka1delta mutant caused normal damage to both endothelial cells and oral epithelial cells, and it was not hypersusceptible to hydrogen peroxide. However, overexpression of CKA1 in a cka2delta/cka2delta strain restored wild-type phenotype. Although the cka2delta/cka2delta mutant had normal virulence in the mouse model of haematogenously disseminated candidiasis, it had significantly attenuated virulence in the mouse model of oropharyngeal candidiasis. Therefore, Cka2p governs the interactions of C. albicans with endothelial and oral epithelial cells in vitro and virulence during oropharyngeal candidiasis.     

Differential protein expression of murine macrophages upon interaction with Candida albicans

Numerous studies highlight the importance of macrophages for optimal host protection against systemic Candida albicans infections. We chose the murine macrophage cell line RAW 264.7 and the wild-type strain C. albicans SC5314 to study of the induced expression/repression of proteins in macrophages when they are in contact with C. albicans, based on 2-DE, comparison between different gels and protein identification. RAW 264.7 cells were allowed to interact with C. albicans cells for 45 min, and a significant differential protein expression was observed in these macrophages compared to controls. Gels were stained with SYPRO Ruby, allowing a better quantification of the intensity of the protein spots. Fifteen spots were up-regulated, whereas 32 were down-regulated; 60 spots appeared and 49 disappeared. Among them, we identified 11 proteins: annexin I, LyGDI (GDID4), Hspa5 (Grp78, Bip), tropomyosin 5 and L-plastin, that augment; and Eif3s5, Hsp60, Hspa9a, Grp58 (ER75), and Hspa8a (Hsc70), that decrease. The translation elongation factor (Eef2p) is modified in some of its different protein species. Many processes seem to be affected: cytoskeletal organisation, oxidative responses (superoxide and nitric oxide production) and protein biosynthesis and refolding.     

Modulation of neutrophil function in host defense against disseminated Candida albicans infection in mice

Neutrophils (PMNs) constitute the main mechanism of host defense against acute invasive and disseminated candidiasis. Recent studies have demonstrated that tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNFalpha), interleukin-6 (IL-6) and granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF) play an important role in the recruitment of PMNs at the site of invasive Candida infection. In the absence of either TNFalpha or IL-6, the course of experimental disseminated candidiasis is more severe, due to defective PMN recruitment. Treatment of mice with recombinant G-CSF (rG-CSF) leads to a significantly reduced mortality during disseminated candidiasis. The outgrowth of Candida albicans from the organs of rG-CSF-treated mice is significantly decreased. Treatment with the combination of rG-CSF and fluconazole has an additive effect on the reduction of fungal load in the organs. In subacute or chronic disseminated Candida infection, rG-CSF is less effective, indicating that neutrophil recruitment and activation are crucial in acute, life-threatening candidiasis, whereas other host defense mechanisms control the outcome of less overwhelming invasive Candida infection.     

Candida glabrata and Candida albicans; dissimilar tissue tropism and infectivity in a gnotobiotic model of mucosal candidiasis

Germ-free transgenic epsilon 26 (Tgepsilon26) mice, deficient in both natural killer (NK)- and T-cells, were inoculated (orally) with each of two Candida glabrata (BG2 or BG1003) or Candida albicans (CAF2-1 or SC5314) strains. Candida glabrata- or C. albicans-colonized mice exhibited similar numbers of viable Candida in the alimentary tract. Neither C. glabrata nor C. albicans caused systemic candidiasis of endogenous (alimentary tract) origin. Candida albicans invaded oroesophageal (tongue, palate, esophagus) and keratinized gastric tissues, evoked hyperkeratosis and a prominent, chronic, granulocyte-dominated, inflammatory response in all infected tissues, stimulated the production of splenic granulocytes and was lethal for the mice within 3-5 weeks after oral colonization. The two C. glabrata strains colonized the alimentary tract and penetrated into the keratinized (cardia-antrum) gastric tissues, but in contrast to C. albicans, were unable to infect oroesophageal tissues. Furthermore, C. glabrata strains were not lethal for the Tgepsilon26 mice, and did not evoke an inflammatory response in colonized gastric tissues or stimulate the production of splenic granulocytes. This 'stealth-like' behavior could explain the ability of C. glabrata to persist in infected tissues and survive as a commensal in the alimentary tract.