Interspecific variation in floral fragrances within the genus Narcissus (Amaryllidaceae)

To improve our understanding of the floral biology, pollination, and systematics of the genus Narcissus, a comparative study was made of flower volatiles from nine species native to southern Spain using headspace collection and GC-MS analysis. The species fell into three fragrance types based on the identity of their major volatiles. In all but one species the fragrances consisted mainly of monoterpene isoprenoids mixed with benzenoids: in six species trans-ß-ocimene occurred in high proportions, in two others it was lacking; the last species had a fragrance dominated by fatty acid derivatives, mixed with terpenoids. Two of the species showed marked intraspecific variation in many of their volatiles. When the volatile data matrix of all species was subjected to cluster analyses and the resulting phenetic trees compared with currently recognized taxonomic groups, there was no congruence at the subgeneric level. However, there was considerable agreement at the sectional level, although in most sections we studied only a single species. This apparent agreement was stronger when the volatiles were analyzed according to shared biosynthetic pathways rather than treated individually, pointing to the higher value of using biosynthetic pathways for uncovering and confirming phenetic, and probable evolutionary, relationships among species. In terms of possible selective pressures from pollinators in shaping fragrance chemistry, available information on the pollination of our species suggested an association between fragrance and types of pollinators. Two pollinator-fragrance groups were apparent: (1) species pollinated by insects that include butterflies and moths displayed fragrances containing volatiles typical of moth-pollinated flowers, most particularly indole combined with high amounts of esters, and (2) species visited exclusively by insects other than butterflies and moths, especially by bees and flies, had fragrances lacking this combination of volatiles. Narcissus assoanus was unusual among our species in having both fragrance chemotypes. Future pollination studies of Narcissus in the field are needed to test the reliability and predictability of the proposed fragrance-pollinator associations.     

The relevance of metrical, chromosomal and allozyme variation to the systematics of the genus Mus

The contribution of metrical, karyological and biochemical techniques towards taxonomic understanding is considered with respect to (1) the delimitation of species; (2) the classification of species at generic level; and (3) subspecific variation. All these techniques are useful for the discrimination of sibling species, with metrical discriminants especially important in helping to establish the geographical limits of species, being applicable to museum collections and to fossil material. In classification at the generic level multivariate morphometric analysis is of very limited value, but karyology and allozyme studies can make important contributions provided the majority of relevant species are examined. All techniques are relevant to establishing the major aspects of subspecific variation, for which formal subspecific nomenclature is rarely appropriate. Problems of extrapolation from inadequate samples are just as acute when using these techniques as with more traditional taxonomy based on morphology. Clear presentation of results in the form of data matrices and dendrograms is important in facilitating the integration of data into a useful taxonomic system.     

羊肚菌多糖提取及其抗氧化活性研究

为了探讨碱法提取羊肚菌多糖的工艺条件并测定其抗氧化活性,该研究以四川北川羊肚菌为原料,采用碱法提取羊肚菌多糖,利用苯酚-硫酸法对羊肚菌多糖得率进行测定,并通过单因素探讨提取温度(70、80、90、100℃)、提取时间(2、4、6、8 h)、碱液浓度(0.4、0.6、0.8、1.0 mol·L~(-1))、料液比(1∶15、1∶20、1∶25、1∶30 g·mL~(-1))对羊肚菌多糖得率的影响,同时采用正交试验优化提取工艺,对其抗氧化活性进行测定。结果表明:在提取温度90℃、提取时间5 h、碱液浓度0.7 mol·L~(-1)、料液比1∶20(g·mL~(-1))条件下得到的羊肚菌多糖得率为5.39%。羊肚菌多糖具有较强的清除DPPH自由基、羟自由基、超氧阴离子的能力和较好的还原能力,其IC50分别为0.468、0.208、0.022、0.014 mg·mL~(-1),抗氧化能力依次为还原能力超氧阴离子清除能力羟自由基清除能力DPPH自由基清除能力。优化后的羊肚菌多糖提取工艺合理、可行,且羊肚菌多糖具有较强的抗氧化活性。     

High levels of allozyme variation within populations and low allozyme divergence within and among species of Hemerocallis (Liliaceae)

Thirty populations from five species of Hemerocallis in Korea were analyzed by starch gel electrophoresis to measure genetic diversity and to determine genetic population structure and the amount of genetic divergence within and between species at 12 isozyme loci. In addition, Moran's I spatial autocorrelation statistics were used to examine the spatial distribution of allozyme polymorphisms in populations of H. thunbergii and H. hakuunensis. Populations of five Korean species maintain high levels of genetic variation and little differentiation among populations and species. Mean expected heterozygosities range from 0.165 in H. hongdoensis, an island endemic, to 0.265 in H. taeanensis, and a total of 81 alleles across the 12 loci were detected in the five species. G(ST) values for each of the five species were low, ranging from 0.051 in H. taeanensis to 0.078 in H. hakuunensis. Mean intraspecific Nei's genetic identities (I) between populations of the five species were all above 0.97. However, a considerable level of heterozygote deficiencies within populations was detected, ranging from 0.242 to 0.411 measured as F(IS) statistics. This deficiencies may be due to inbreeding, limited pollen and seed dispersal, or from the pooling of subpopulations that differ in allele frequencies. A small spatial scale population substructuring (<12 m) was found in H. thunbergii and H. hakuunensis. A group of populations from each of the five previously designated Hemerocallis species (based on their morphology, ecology, and phenology) agrees with our allozyme data, though pairwise comparisons among species had high I values (from 0.862, H. middendorffii vs. H. hongdoensis, to 0.969, H. thunbergii vs. H. taeanensis). This is attributed to the presence of the same high-frequency alleles in different species at seven loci. In addition, no "diagnostic allele" that appears in all populations of one species, but is absent in other species, was detected at the 12 isozyme loci. These all suggest that species of Hemerocallis in Korea may have recently derived from an ancestor or progenitor harboring high levels of genetic diversity.     

Behavioural variation among strains ofTrichogramma spp.: host-species selection

The host-selection behaviour of nine strains ofTrichogramma spp., towards eggs ofMamestra brassicae, Pieris brassicae andP. rapae, was investigated in laboratory experiments in order to select candidate strains for inundative releases against these species. Experiments were carried out by continuously observing the behaviour of individual females, which were offered equal numbers of eggs of two host species arranged in a grid.M. brassicae was a highly acceptable host species for all strains, whereas the acceptability of the twoPieris species was similar within strains, but varied between strains. Considering the variation in acceptance ofPieris eggs, strains either showed: (1) no preference betweenMamestra andPieris (High PierisAcceptance = HPA strains), (2) a preference forMamestra (Variable PierisAcceptance = VPA strains), or (3) an aversion forPieris (Low PierisAcceptance = LPA strains). Females of VPA strains showed a high acceptance ofPieris eggs if the preferredMamestra eggs were absent. They contacted comparatively fewerPieris eggs in presence ofMamestra eggs, which indicates selection of hosts at a distance. HPA strains probably are the best candidates for inundative releases.

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Sélection hôte-espèce par différences souches de l'æuf-parasiteTrichogramma spp.

Résumé Le comportement de sélection de l'hôte par neuf souches deTrichogrammes, vis-à-vis d'ufs deMamestra brassicae, Pieris brassicae etP. rapae a été étudié au laboratoire afin de sélectioner des souches candidates pour des lâchers inondatifs contre ses espèces. Des expériences ont été menées par observations en continu du comportement de femelles auxquelles était offert un nombre égal d'ufs de deux espèces d'hôtes, disposés selon un grille.M. brassicae est un espèce-hôte fortement acceptée par toutes les souches. Au contraire, l'acceptabilité des deux espèces dePieris, semblable pour chaque souche, varie entre les souches. En tenant compte de la variation d'acceptance des ufs dePieris les souches (1) ne montrent aucune préférence entreMamestra etPieris, (2) montrent une préférence pourMamestra, ou(3) une aversion pourPieris. Des femelles des souches du second groupe acceptent fortement les ufs dePieris si les ufs deMamestra, préférés, sont absents. Comparativement, elles rentrent en contact avec moins d'ufs dePieris en présence d'ufs deMamestra. Ceci indique une sélection des hôtes à distance. Les souches du premier groupe sont probablement les meilleures candidates pour des lâchers inondatifs.

     

A revision of the systematics of panther worms (Hofstenia spp., Acoela), with notes on color variation and genetic variation within the genus

Species of the genus Hofstenia are voracious predators and among the largest and most colorful of the Acoela. They are known from Japan, the Red Sea, the North Atlantic islands of Bermuda and the Bahamas, and the Caribbean and in a variety of habitats including the rocky intertidal, among Thalassia sea grass, on filamentous algae and decaying mangrove leaves. Certain color morphs associated with each of these habitats seem to have confused the taxonomy of the group. While brown-and-white banding and spotting patterns of Hofstenia miamia and Hofstenia giselae are distinctive for species associated with mangrove leaves and Thallasia sp. and are likely to be cryptic for these specific environments, we find some evidence to suggest that the coloration is mimicry of a nudibranch with aposematic coloration. The common plan in these patterns is one with three variously solid or spotted lighter cross bands on a dark background. Our examination of museum type material and live specimens of Hofstenia collected from Bahamas, Belize, Bermuda, and Panama revealed no internal morphological differences between the Hofstenia species occurring in the Caribbean. Similarly, our analyses of 18S and 28S molecular sequence data revealed no significant differences among specimens. Accordingly, we declare that Hofstenia giselae is a junior synonym of Hofstenia miamia, the three-banded panther worm. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi: ) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users. Handling editor: K. Martons     

Interspecific interactions among species of the coral genus Porites from Okinawa, Japan

Analysis of field established xenogeneic interactions among five Porites species from Sesoko Island, Okinawa, revealed a transitive type of hierarchy as: P. rus > P. cylindrica > P. lobata > P. australiensis> P. lutea. Out of the 111 interspecific encounters studied, in only 5.4% reciprocal interactions were recorded, and in a single case, the opposite directionality of hierarchy was documented. Allogeneic encounters were also observed. A single major effector mechanism, an overgrowth (together with secondary outcomes such as the formation of small points of rejection, bleaching and pink color formation along a narrow peripheral belt of contacting tissues), was the only response in all 10 xenogeneic and 5 allogeneic combinations. In some massive colonies, a long contacting line of up to 50 cm was established. No sign for allelopathy, stand-off or rejection from a distance (i.e., by sweeper tentacles, sweeper polyps) was observed. Results are discussed with the accumulated data on Porites species from different reefs, worldwide, confirming that this genus is commonly lower in the hierarchy of xenogeneic interactions.     

Biochemical systematics of the genus Lipara using isoenzymes

ln the course of a systematic and population genetic study of the genus Lipara, a new approach was tested, involving the examination of isoenzymes using PAGE and isoelectric focusing (IEF). The enzymes from whole individual specimens of both larvae or adult flies were analysed. Twenty-five enzyme systems have been investigated with PAGE, 18 of which gave interpretable results. General proteins were analysed with both PAGE and IEF. By means of these techniques, the intra- and interspecific variation of structural proteins and different enzyme systems were examined. Possible changes in general proteins and enzymes during the development from larvae to adults were also investigated.     

Alkaloidal variation in the genus Pearsonia

Several quinolizidine alkaloids, including various angelate esters, are known from the genus Pearsonia. In a detailed variation study which included 98 samples from nine of the 11 species, large qualitative and quantitative differences were recorded. The observed variation is ascribed to the following: 1, species (the alkaloids of some species and subspecies are diagnostically different); 2, provenance (various populations of the same species may have unique combinations of alkaloids); 3, developmental stage (in P. cajanifolia there is a marked decreased in esterification towards the end of the growing season); 4, plant parts extracted (seeds, for example, have high concentrations of hydroxylated lupanine-type alkaloids and only small amounts of esters). These results highlight some of the problems associated with the use of alkaloids as taxonomic characters.     

Chloroplast DNA variation in Chlamydomonas and its potential application to the systematics of this genus

We have estimated the extent of chloroplast DNA (cpDNA) variation in three species of green algae belonging to the genus Chlamydomonas to determine if this variation could be used for taxonomic studies. The overall arrangement of sequences in the chloroplast genome of Chlamydomonas eugametos was compared with that of the closely related C. moewusii and that of the more distantly related C. reinhardtii. The results show that the chloroplast genomes of C. eugametos and C. moewusii are essentially co-linear and are highly homologous in sequence while those of C. eugametos and C. reinhardtii have been extensively rearranged and share a relatively low overall sequence homology. This wide range of chloroplast genome organization suggests that the analysis of cp-DNA variation will be useful for the classification of algae belonging to the Chlamydomonas genus.     

The impact of domestication on distribution of allozyme variation within and among cultivars of radish,Raphanus sativus L.

Summary Allozyme surveys of cultivated plant species generally report little within-cultivar variation, but considerable among-cultivar variation. This trend contrasts with natural plant populations in which most allozyme variation resides within, rather than among, populations. The difference may be an artifact of the extreme inbreeding techniques used to develop and propagate these crops, rather than a consequence of domestication per se. To test this hypothesis, we compared the population genetic structure of 24 lines of radish cultivars — a domesticated species developed and maintained as open-pollinated, outcrossed populations — with four wild radish populations in California. Although the wild populations displayed more overall allozyme variation than the cultivars, most of the allozyme variation in the cultivars remains partitioned within, rather than among, lines. Apparently, how a crop is developed and maintained can have a profound influence on the organization of genetic variation of that species.     

Interspecific and progeny relationships in the genus Stylosanthes inferred from chloroplast DNA sequence variation.

The chloroplast trnL (UAA) intron and trnL (UAA)-trnF (GAA) intergenic spacer region have been sequenced from 37 samples, 36 of which representing 19 Stylosanthes species and one from the related genus Zornia. The DNA sequences were used to study phylogenetic relationships in the tropical forage legume genus Stylosanthes, by means of parsimony analysis using the heuristic search method of the computer program PAUP. The resulting cladograms divide Stylosanthes into four separate clades. Within the clades, species are poorly resolved owing to low sequence divergence. Small intra-specific chloroplast DNA variation is observed in S. humilis, S. scabra and the species complex S. guianensis. Variation between S. humilis populations is considered to be geographically structured. The overall results agree well with previously established inter-specific relationships and provide evidence for the genetic origin of the alloploid species S. hamata, S. scabra, S. ingrata, S. sympodialis, S. subsericea, S. capitata and S. fruticosa. This understanding of evolutionary relationships in Stylosanthes, in combination with biogeographical concepts provides a way of discerning isolated habitats in Central and South America, which may therefore contribute to strategies of plant collecting.     

Biodegradation of cyanide by Trichoderma spp. and Fusarium spp.

The rate of degradation of cyanide by certain strains of the Trichoderma spp. was evaluated. For comparison two Fusarium spp., which had previously been demonstrated to degrade metallocyanides were also studied. Studies were carried out to assess the rate of degradation using cyanide as the sole source of carbon or in the presence of glucose. Biodegradation was observed in flask cultures using cyanide as the sole carbon source. Strong evidence of cyanide biodegradation and co-metabolism emerged from studies with flask cultures where glucose was provided as a co-substrate. The rate of degradation of 2000 ppm CN⁻ was enhanced almost three times in the presence of glucose. A concomitant increase in fungal biomass was also observed in all the strains over the experimental period. Growth yield calculations performed provided values that were comparable to those reported in literature for one-carbon substrates.     

Inter- and intraspecific variation in infectivity ofSteinernema spp. to larvae of the mushroom flyLycoriella solani

Laboratory bioassays were done to assess the susceptibility of larvae of the mushroom sciarid flyLycoriella solani Winnertz (Diptera; Sciaridae) to 16 isolates comprising five species of the entomopathogenic nematode,Steinernema (Nematoda; Steinernematidae). Each isolate was tested by challenging sciarid larvae with single nematodes. Six isolates were also tested in dose-response experiments. Variations in nematode infectivity occurred (p<0.001) at both inter- and intraspecific levels.Steinernema feltiae (Filipjev) was the most virulent species: two isolates, Nemasys (LD₅₀=1.5–3.9) and Sus 94 (1.8–3.9) were superior to the rest.Steinernema kraussei (Steiner) was the least infectious nematode tested as its infection probability never exceeded 0.10. In addition, lethal dose₅₀ values for this species ranged from 9.0–62.6 and two isolates failed consistently to infect any hosts.     

Associations of allozyme variation and behavior in the cowpea weevil (Callosobruchus maculatus)

The cowpea weevil (Callosobruchus maculatus (Fabré)) exhibits several behavioral traits that are stable within, but vary among, strains. These traits are heritable and quantitative. We used cellulose acetate gel electrophoresis to quantify allozyme variation within and among laboratory cultures of four weevil strains and determine whether allozyme variation correlates with behavioral traits. Significant variation exists at 8 of 11 loci assayed and gene frequencies are significantly different among strains. The South Indian strain (SI) is most variable and measures of genetic distance set it apart from the other strains. It is also behaviorally unique. The Brazilian strain (BC) is most different from SI in allozyme diversity and behavioral phenotype, while two African strains (IITA, CAM) are intermediate in allozyme diversity and phenotype. These results are consistent with the known history of these strains and the differences in the allozymes parallel the differences in behavioral traits.     

Interspecific hybridization and its evolutionary significance in the genus Aquilegia

Various hybrid combinations of 18 species and varieties ofAquilegia were produced, and several cross-pollinations were made which failed to produce hybrids. Pollen fertility of hybrids was generally high, with a total mean of approximately 50%, but highly variable among hybrid combinations and consistently lower than that of parental species. With the exception of frequent occurrence of giant pollen grains and rare synaptic failure of one or two homologous pairs, meiotic behavior in hybrid pollen mother cells appeared to be completely regular. Representatives of the Vulgaris Complex were observed to be intermediate genetically and morphologically leading to the interpretation of ancestral status among extant species. The greatest genetic diversity within the genus was shown to exist betweenA. ecalcarata and members of the Caerulea Complex.     

Studies in the Melica ciliata – complex: 1. Distribution of allozyme variation within and among individuals, populations and geographic regions

Allozyme variation in 83 European populations of the Melica ciliata/ transsilvanica species complex has been investigated. In spite of a diploid chromosome number, most loci were duplicated and patterns of within-population variation were not explainable unless apomixis or uncommon patterns of chromosomal segregation were assumed. Allelic richness and genetic diversity were very high but most of the variation (55-98%) was due to population differentiation. Geographic patterns were analysed both using phenetic, based on allele frequencies within populations, and cladistic, based on multi-locus genotypes, methods. Both methods congruently recognised three large groups of populations with discrete geographic distributions, in addition to a number of smaller groups. Of the three main groups, one was distributed in eastern and central Europe, one was restricted to western Europe north of the Alps and one was distributed in Iberia, Brittany and along the western shores of the Mediterranean. These groups are likely to have had separate histories but there appears to have been significant gene-flow among them. Among the less distinct groups, it was suggestive that some, e.g. the group containing all populations from the disjunct distribution in the Baltic basin, have been formed by introgression between the three major groups, whereas other deviating populations may represent additional distinct entities.     

Genetic variation of the genus Kengyilia by ISSR markers

We investigated the genetic variation within 32 accessions distributed to 14 species and one variety by using ISSR (inter-simple sequence repeat) markers. The results showed that genetic variation was relatively higher among the accessions. A total of 593 bands were amplified by 12 ISSR primers, of which 535 bands (90.2%) were polymorphic. Eleven to 80 polymorphic bands were amplified from each prime, with an average of 44.6 bands. The interspecies GS (genetic similarity) value ranged from 0.430 to 0.866, and the average was 0.620. Cluster analysis showed that all accessions could be classified into 4 groups by ISSR markers. The different accessions in a species were clustered together, but they had genetic variation in molecular levels. There was obvious interspecies genetic variation. Species with similar morphological characteristics and from the same areas or neighboring geographical regions were clustered together and had close relationships. ISSR markers are useful in analyzing interspecies variation in Kengyilia. __________ Translated from Guihaia, 2006, 26 (4): 375–380 [译自: 广西植物]     

Morphological and morphometric study of crustacean parasites within the genus Lernaeocera

Two species of Lernaeocera are present in the southeastern North Sea. Lernaeocera lusci infects bib Trisopterus luscus, dragonet Callionymus lyra and sand goby Pomatoschistus minutus. L. Minuta is a junior synonym of L. lusci. The second valid species, L. branchialis, infects whiting Merlangius merlangus. The two species can be morphologically separated by the antennary processes, which are present in L. lusci and absent in L. branchialis. Discriminant functions allow complete separation between L. lusci and L. branchialis. There is high intraspecific, host-dependent variability within L. lusci. Length of L. lusci is significantly influenced by host size, and body form is influenced by the site of attachment of L. lusci on at least one host (bib). It is suggested that L. lusci consists of 3 forms: f. lusci, f. minuta and f. lyra.