Minor stable carbon isotope fractionation between respired carbon dioxide and bulk soil organic matter during laboratory incubation of topsoil

A common assumption in paleoenvironmental reconstructions using soils is that the carbon isotope composition of soil-respired CO₂ is equivalent to the carbon isotope composition of bulk soil organic matter (SOM). However, the occurrence of a non-zero per mil carbon isotope enrichment factor between CO₂ and SOM (\(\varepsilon_{{{\text{CO}}_{ 2} - {\text{SOM}}}}\)) during soil respiration is the most widely accepted explanation for the down-profile increase in SOM δ¹³C values commonly observed in well-drained soils. In order to shed light on this apparent discrepancy, we incubated soil samples collected from the top 2 cm of soils with pure C₃ vegetation and compared the δ¹³C values of soil-respired CO₂ to the δ¹³C values of bulk SOM. Our results show near-zero \(\varepsilon_{{{\text{CO}}_{ 2} - {\text{SOM}}}}\) values (?0.3 to 0.4 ‰), supporting the use of paleosol organic matter as a proxy for paleo soil-respired CO₂. Significantly more negative \(\varepsilon_{{{\text{CO}}_{ 2} - {\text{SOM}}}}\) values are required to explain the typical δ¹³C profiles of SOM in well-drained soils. Therefore our results also suggest that typical SOM δ¹³C profiles result from either (1) a process other than carbon isotope fractionation between CO₂ and SOM during soil respiration or (2) \(\varepsilon_{{{\text{CO}}_{ 2} - {\text{SOM}}}}\) values that become increasingly negative as SOM matures.     

Linking microbial activity and soil organic matter transformations in forest soils under elevated CO2

Soil organic matter (SOM) dynamics ultimately govern the ability of soil to provide long‐term C sequestration and the nutrients required for ecosystem productivity. Predicting belowground responses to elevated CO₂ requires an integrated understanding of SOM transformations and the microbial activity that governs them. It remains unclear how the microorganisms upon which these transformations depend will function in an elevated CO₂ world. This study examines SOM transformations and microbial metabolism in soils from the Duke Free Air Carbon Enrichment site in North Carolina, USA. We assessed microbial respiration and net nitrogen (N) mineralization in soils with and without elevated CO₂ exposure during a 100‐day incubation. We also traced the depleted C isotopic signature of the supplemental CO₂ into SOM and the soils' phospholipid fatty acids (PLFA), which serve as biomarkers for living cells. Cumulative net N mineralization in elevated CO₂ soils was 50% that in control soils after a 100‐day incubation. Respiration was not altered with elevated CO₂. C : N ratios of bulk SOM did not change with elevated CO₂, but incubation data suggest that the C : N ratios of mineralized organic matter increased with elevated CO₂. Values of SOM δ¹³C were depleted with elevated CO₂ (?26.7±0.2 vs. ?30.2±0.3‰), reflecting the depleted signature of the supplemental CO₂. We compared δ¹³C of individual PLFA with the δ¹³C of SOM to discern incorporation of the depleted C isotopic signature into soil microbial groups in elevated CO₂ plots. PLFA i15:0, a15:0, and 10Met18:0 reflected significant incorporation of recently produced photosynthate, suggesting that the bacterial groups defined by these biomarkers are active metabolizers in elevated CO₂ soils. At least one of these groups (actinomycetes, 10Met18:0) specializes in metabolizing less labile substrates. Because control plots did not receive an equivalent ¹³C tracer, we cannot determine from these data whether this group of organisms was stimulated by elevated CO₂ compared with these organisms in control soils. Stimulation of this group, if it occurred in the elevated CO₂ plot, would be consistent with a decline in the availability of mineralizable organic matter with elevated CO₂, which incubation data suggest may be the case in these soils.     

Soil carbon and nitrogen cycling and storage throughout the soil profile in a sweetgum plantation after 11 years of CO2‐enrichment

Increased partitioning of carbon (C) to fine roots under elevated [CO₂], especially deep in the soil profile, could alter soil C and nitrogen (N) cycling in forests. After more than 11 years of free‐air CO₂ enrichment in a Liquidambar styraciflua L. (sweetgum) plantation in Oak Ridge, TN, USA, greater inputs of fine roots resulted in the incorporation of new C (i.e., C with a depleted δ¹³C) into root‐derived particulate organic matter (POM) pools to 90‐cm depth. Even though production in the sweetgum stand was limited by soil N availability, soil C and N contents were greater throughout the soil profile under elevated [CO₂] at the conclusion of the experiment. Greater C inputs from fine‐root detritus under elevated [CO₂] did not result in increased net N immobilization or C mineralization rates in long‐term laboratory incubations, possibly because microbial biomass was lower in the CO₂‐enriched plots. Furthermore, the δ¹³CO₂ of the C mineralized from the incubated soil closely tracked the δ¹³C of the labile POM pool in the elevated [CO₂] treatment, especially in shallower soil, and did not indicate significant priming of the decomposition of pre‐experiment soil organic matter (SOM). Although potential C mineralization rates were positively and linearly related to total SOM C content in the top 30 cm of soil, this relationship did not hold in deeper soil. Taken together with an increased mean residence time of C in deeper soil pools, these findings indicate that C inputs from relatively deep roots under elevated [CO₂] may increase the potential for long‐term soil C storage. However, C in deeper soil is likely to take many years to accrue to a significant fraction of total soil C given relatively smaller root inputs at depth. Expanded representation of biogeochemical cycling throughout the soil profile may improve model projections of future forest responses to rising atmospheric [CO₂].     

Immobilization, stabilization and remobilization of nitrogen in forest soils at elevated CO2: a 15N and 13C tracer study

The fate of immobilized N in soils is one of the great uncertainties in predicting C sequestration at increased CO₂ and N deposition. In a dual isotope tracer experiment (¹³C, ¹⁵N) within a 4‐year CO₂ enrichment (+200 ppm_v) study with forest model ecosystems, we (i) quantified the effects of elevated CO₂ on the partitioning of N; (ii) traced immobilized N into physically separated pools of soil organic matter (SOM) with turnover rates known from their ¹³C signals; and (iii) estimated the remobilization and thus, the bio‐availability of newly sequestered C and N. (1) CO₂ enrichment significantly decreased NO₃^? concentrations in soil waters and export from 1.5 m deep lysimeters by 30–80%. Consequently, elevated CO₂ increased the overall retention of N in the model ecosystems. (2) About 60–80% of added ¹⁵NH₄¹⁵NO₃ were retained in soils. The clay fraction was the greatest sink for the immobilized ¹⁵N sequestering 50–60% of the total new soil N. SOM associated with clay contained only 25% of the total new soil C pool and had small C/N ratios (<13), indicating that it consists of humified organic matter with a relatively slow turn over rate. This implies that added ¹⁵N was mainly immobilized in stable mineral‐bound SOM pools. (3) Incubation of soils for 1 year showed that the remobilization of newly sequestered N was three to nine times smaller than that of newly sequestered C. Thus, inorganic inputs of N were stabilized more effectively in soils than C. Significantly less newly sequestered N was remobilized from soils previously exposed to elevated CO₂. In summary, our results show firstly that a large fraction of inorganic N inputs becomes effectively immobilized in relative stable SOM pools and secondly that elevated CO₂ can increase N retention in soils and hence it may tighten N cycling and diminish the risk of nitrate leaching to groundwater.     

Carbon sequestration and turnover in soil under the energy crop Miscanthus: repeated 13C natural abundance approach and literature synthesis

The stability and turnover of soil organic matter (SOM) are a very important but poorly understood part of carbon (C) cycling. Conversion of C₃ grassland to the C₄ energy crop Miscanthus provides an ideal opportunity to quantify medium‐term SOM dynamics without disturbance (e.g., plowing), due to the natural shift in the δ¹³C signature of soil C. For the first time, we used a repeated ¹³C natural abundance approach to measure C turnover in a loamy Gleyic Cambisol after 9 and 21 years of Miscanthus cultivation. This is the longest C₃–C₄ vegetation change study on C turnover in soil under energy crops. SOM stocks under Miscanthus and reference grassland were similar down to 1 m depth. However, both increased between 9 and 21 years from 105 to 140 mg C ha^?1 (P < 0.05), indicating nonsteady state of SOM. This calls for caution when estimating SOM turnover based on a single sampling. The mean residence time (MRT) of old C (>9 years) increased with depth from 19 years (0–10 cm) to 30–152 years (10–50 cm), and remained stable below 50 cm. From 41 literature observations, the average SOM increase after conversion from cropland or grassland to Miscanthus was 6.4 and 0.4 mg C ha^?1, respectively. The MRT of total C in topsoil under Miscanthus remained stable at ~60 years, independent of plantation age, corroborating the idea that C dynamics are dominated by recycling processes rather than by C stabilization. In conclusion, growing Miscanthus on C‐poor arable soils caused immediate C sequestration because of higher C input and decreased SOM decomposition. However, after replacing grasslands with Miscanthus, SOM stocks remained stable and the MRT of old C₃‐C increased strongly with depth.     

Deep Autotrophic Soil Respiration in Shrubland and Woodland Ecosystems in Central New Mexico

Quantifying the controls on soil respiration is important for understanding ecosystem physiology and for predicting the response of soil carbon reservoirs to climate change. The majority of soil respiration is typically considered to occur in the top 20–30 cm of soils. In desert soils, where organic matter concentrations tend to be low and plants are deeply rooted, deeper respiration might be expected. However, little is known about the depth distribution of respiration in dryland soils. Here we show that the average depth of soil respiration between pulse precipitation events is almost always greater than 20 cm and is frequently greater than 50 cm in two central New Mexico desert shrublands. The average depth of soil respiration in a pi?on-juniper woodland was shallower, between 5 and 40 cm. In the shrublands, 8‰ seasonal variations in the carbon isotope composition of soil-respired CO₂ (δ¹³C_r-soil) that correlate with vapor pressure deficit support root/rhizosphere respiration as the dominant source of soil CO₂. Such deep autotrophic respiration indicates that shrubs preferentially allocate photosynthate to deep roots when conditions near the surface are unfavorable. Therefore, respiration rates in these soils are not necessarily correlated with root biomass. The δ¹³C_r-soil values provide no evidence for CO₂ evolved from soil inorganic carbon. Our results also suggest that organic carbon cycling is rapid and efficient in these soils and that the δ¹³C value of CO₂ respired from soils in much of the southwestern US, and perhaps in other semiarid regions, varies seasonally by at least 4‰.     

Soil‐specific response functions of organic matter mineralization to the availability of labile carbon

Soil organic matter (SOM) mineralization processes are central to the functioning of soils in relation to feedbacks with atmospheric CO₂ concentration, to sustainable nutrient supply, to structural stability and in supporting biodiversity. Recognition that labile C‐inputs to soil (e.g. plant‐derived) can significantly affect mineralization of SOM (‘priming effects’) complicates prediction of environmental and land‐use change effects on SOM dynamics and soil C‐balance. The aim of this study is to construct response functions for SOM priming to labile C (glucose) addition rates, for four contrasting soils. Six rates of glucose (3 atm% ¹³C) addition (in the range 0–1 mg glucose g^?1 soil day^?1) were applied for 8 days. Soil CO₂ efflux was partitioned into SOM‐ and glucose‐derived components by isotopic mass balance, allowing quantification of SOM priming over time for each soil type. Priming effects resulting from pool substitution effects in the microbial biomass (‘apparent priming’) were accounted for by determining treatment effects on microbial biomass size and isotopic composition. In general, SOM priming increased with glucose addition rate, approaching maximum rates specific for each soil (up to 200%). Where glucose additions saturated microbial utilization capacity (>0.5 mg glucose g^?1 soil), priming was a soil‐specific function of glucose mineralization rate. At low to intermediate glucose addition rates, the magnitude (and direction) of priming effects was more variable. These results are consistent with the view that SOM priming is supported by the availability of labile C, that priming is not a ubiquitous function of all components of microbial communities and that soils differ in the extent to which labile C stimulates priming. That priming effects can be represented as response functions to labile C addition rates may be a means of their explicit representation in soil C‐models. However, these response functions are soil‐specific and may be affected by several interacting factors at lower addition rates.     

Carbon flow in an upland grassland: effect of liming on the flux of recently photosynthesized carbon to rhizosphere soil

The effect of liming on the flow of recently photosynthesized carbon to rhizosphere soil was studied using ¹³CO₂ pulse labelling, in an upland grassland ecosystem in Scotland. The use of ¹³C enabled detection, in the field, of the effect of a 4‐year liming period of selected soil plots on C allocation from plant biomass to soil, in comparison with unlimed plots. Photosynthetic rates and carbon turnover were higher in plants grown in limed soils than in those from unlimed plots. Higher δ¹³C‰ values were detected in shoots from limed plants than in those from unlimed plants in samples clipped within 15 days of the end of pulse labelling. Analysis of the aboveground plant production corresponding to the 4‐year period of liming indicated that the standing biomass was higher in plots that received lime. Lower δ¹³C‰ values in limed roots compared with unlimed roots were found, whereas no significant difference was detected between soil samples. Extrapolation of our results indicated that more C has been lost through the soil than has been gained via photosynthetic assimilation because of pasture liming in Scotland during the period 1990–1998. However, the uncertainty associated with such extrapolation based on this single study is high and these estimates are provided only to set our findings in the broader context of national soil carbon emissions.     

Altered patterns of soil carbon substrate usage and heterotrophic respiration in a pine forest with elevated CO2 and N fertilization

To assess how heterotrophic microorganisms may alter their activities and thus their CO₂‐C return to the atmosphere with elevated CO₂ and changing N availability, we examined soil organic matter (SOM) dynamics at the Duke Free Air Carbon Enrichment (FACE) site, after N fertilizer was applied. We measured heterotrophic respiration during early and late stages of SOM mineralization in soil incubations to capture activity on relatively labile and refractory SOM pools. We also measured δ¹³C of respired CO₂‐C and phospholipid fatty acids (PLFAs) during early mineralization stages to track the microbial groups involved in substrate use. We calculated , a measure of δ¹³C_PLFA normalized by respired δ¹³CO₂, to assess microbial function with C substrates formed with elevated CO₂ and altered N availability, via the distinct δ¹³C of the supplemental CO₂. We also quantified extracellular enzyme activity (EEA) during labile and recalcitrant SOM mineralization. Early in the incubations, increased N availability reduced heterotrophic CO₂‐C release. By the later stages of SOM mineralization, elevated CO₂ soils with fertilization had respired 72% of the CO₂‐C respired by all other soils. values suggest that fungi in elevated CO₂ plots took up C substrates possessing the δ¹³C signature of recently formed SOM, and added N promoted the activity of Gram‐negative bacteria and reduced that of Gram‐positive bacteria, particularly actinomycetes. Consistent with this, the enzyme responsible for the degradation of peptidoglycan and chitin, compounds produced by Gram‐positive bacteria and fungi, respectively, experienced a decline in activity with N fertilization. If patterns observed in this study with N additions are reversed with progressive N limitation at this site, actinomycetes and other Gram‐positive bacteria responsible for mineralizing relatively recalcitrant substrates may experience increases in their activity. Such shifts in microbial functioning may result in increased turnover of, and C release from, relatively decay‐resistant material.     

Soil warming alters microbial substrate use in alpine soils

Will warming lead to an increased use of older soil organic carbon (SOC) by microbial communities, thereby inducing C losses from C‐rich alpine soils? We studied soil microbial community composition, activity, and substrate use after 3 and 4 years of soil warming (+4 °C, 2007–2010) at the alpine treeline in Switzerland. The warming experiment was nested in a free air CO₂ enrichment experiment using depleted ¹³CO₂ (δ¹³C = ?30‰, 2001–2009). We traced this depleted ¹³C label in phospholipid fatty acids (PLFA) of the organic layer (0–5 cm soil depth) and in C mineralized from root‐free soils to distinguish substrate ages used by soil microorganisms: fixed before 2001 (‘old’), from 2001 to 2009 (‘new’) or in 2010 (‘recent’). Warming induced a sustained stimulation of soil respiration (+38%) without decline in mineralizable SOC. PLFA concentrations did not reveal changes in microbial community composition due to soil warming, but soil microbial metabolic activity was stimulated (+66%). Warming decreased the amount of new and recent C in the fungal biomarker 18:2ω6,9 and the amount of new C mineralized from root‐free soils, implying a shift in microbial substrate use toward a greater use of old SOC. This shift in substrate use could indicate an imbalance between C inputs and outputs, which could eventually decrease SOC storage in this alpine ecosystem.     

Using Soil 13C to Detect the Historic Presence of Schizachyrium scoparium (Little Bluestem) Grasslands on Martha's Vineyard

Abstract We used differences in soil carbon δ¹³C values between forested sites and grasslands dominated by the C₄ grass Schizachyrium scoparium (little bluestem) to detect the presence of former grasslands in the historical landscape of the coastal sand plain of Martha's Vineyard, Massachusetts, U.S.A. Soil δ¹³C was measured at (1) sites with long‐term forest or grassland vegetation and (2) sites with known histories where forest vegetation invaded grassland and where forest converted to grassland. The δ¹³C of soil under long‐term grassland was –24.1‰ at 0 to 2 cm depth and –23.4‰ at 2 to 10 cm and was enriched by 3.4‰ and 2.8‰ compared with soil under long‐term forest. In forests that invaded grasslands dominated by S. scoparium, soil δ¹³C decreased as C derived from trees replaced C from S. scoparium. This decline occurred faster in surface soils and in the light soil organic matter fraction than in the mineral soil. In forests that converted to grasslands, soil δ¹³C increased and the rate of increase was similar in surface and mineral soil and in the different soil organic matter fractions. Rates of change indicated that soil δ¹³C could be used to detect changes in vegetation involving the presence or absence of S. scoparium during the last 150 years. Application of this model to a potential grassland restoration site on Martha's Vineyard where the landscape history was not known indicated that the site was previously unoccupied by S. scoparium during this time. The δ¹³C of surface mineral soil can be useful for detecting the presence of historic S. scoparium grasslands but only in the period well after European settlement of these coastal sand plain landscapes.     

Decomposition of soil and plant carbon from pasture systems after 9 years of exposure to elevated CO2: impact on C cycling and modeling

Elevated atmospheric CO₂ may alter decomposition rates through changes in plant material quality and through its impact on soil microbial activity. This study examines whether plant material produced under elevated CO₂ decomposes differently from plant material produced under ambient CO₂. Moreover, a long‐term experiment offered a unique opportunity to evaluate assumptions about C cycling under elevated CO₂ made in coupled climate–soil organic matter (SOM) models. Trifolium repens and Lolium perenne plant materials, produced under elevated (60 Pa) and ambient CO₂ at two levels of N fertilizer (140 vs. 560 kg ha^?1 yr^?1), were incubated in soil for 90 days. Soils and plant materials used for the incubation had been exposed to ambient and elevated CO₂ under free air carbon dioxide enrichment conditions and had received the N fertilizer for 9 years. The rate of decomposition of L. perenne and T. repens plant materials was unaffected by elevated atmospheric CO₂ and rate of N fertilization. Increases in L. perenne plant material C : N ratio under elevated CO₂ did not affect decomposition rates of the plant material. If under prolonged elevated CO₂ changes in soil microbial dynamics had occurred, they were not reflected in the rate of decomposition of the plant material. Only soil respiration under L. perenne, with or without incorporation of plant material, from the low‐N fertilization treatment was enhanced after exposure to elevated CO₂. This increase in soil respiration was not reflected in an increase in the microbial biomass of the L. perenne soil. The contribution of old and newly sequestered C to soil respiration, as revealed by the ¹³C‐CO₂ signature, reflected the turnover times of SOM–C pools as described by multipool SOM models. The results do not confirm the assumption of a negative feedback induced in the C cycle following an increase in CO₂, as used in coupled climate–SOM models. Moreover, this study showed no evidence for a positive feedback in the C cycle following additional N fertilization.     

Desert grassland dynamics estimated from carbon isotopes in grass phytoliths and soil organic matter

Abstract. We document the potential for using carbon isotopes in both soil organic matter (SOM) and grass phytoliths in soil to increase the temporal and taxonomic resolutions of long term vegetation dynamics. Carbon isotope values from both SOM and phytoliths are expected to describe both the age of material through ¹⁴C dating, and the photosynthetic pathway of the source plant material through ratios of ¹²C/¹³C. Taxonomic resolution is increased because the phytoliths examined are specific to grasses, whereas the SOM reflects the contribution of all the vegetation. Temporal resolution is increased because phytoliths are less mobile in the soil profile than SOM, and can therefore provide older dates from the same soil depth. Our results, from a desert grassland site in southwestern North America, largely confirm these expectations, and show that C₄ species have dominated the grass composition for the last 8000 yr, C₃ non‐grass vegetation increased about 100–350 yrBP, and no significant C₃ grass or non‐grass vegetation existed between 350–2000 yr BP.     

An oxygen-mediated positive feedback between elevated carbon dioxide and soil organic matter decomposition in a simulated anaerobic wetland

We examined the effects of elevated atmospheric CO₂ on soil carbon decomposition in an experimental anaerobic wetland system. Pots containing either bare C₄‐derived soil or the C₃ sedge Scirpus olneyi planted in C₄‐derived soil were incubated in greenhouse chambers at either ambient or twice‐ambient atmospheric CO₂. We measured CO₂ flux from each pot, quantified soil organic matter (SOM) mineralization using δ¹³C, and determined root and shoot biomass. SOM mineralization increased in response to elevated CO₂ by 83–218% (P<0.0001). In addition, soil redox potential was significantly and positively correlated with root biomass (P= 0.003). Our results (1) show that there is a positive feedback between elevated atmospheric CO₂ concentrations and wetland SOM decomposition and (2) suggest that this process is mediated by the release of oxygen from the roots of wetland plants. Because this feedback may occur in any wetland system, including peatlands, these results suggest a limitation on the size of the carbon sink presented by anaerobic wetland soils in a future elevated‐CO₂ atmosphere.     

Accelerated belowground C cycling in a managed agriforest ecosystem exposed to elevated carbon dioxide concentrations

We investigated the effects of three elevated atmospheric CO₂ levels on a Populus deltoides plantation at Biosphere 2 Laboratory in Oracle Arizona. Stable isotopes of carbon have been used as tracers to separate the carbon present before the CO₂ treatments started (old C), from that fixed after CO₂ treatments began (new C). Tree growth at elevated [CO₂] increased inputs to soil organic matter (SOM) by increasing the production of fine roots and accelerating the rate of root C turnover. However, soil carbon content decreased as [CO₂] in the atmosphere increased and inputs of new C were not found in SOM. Consequently, the rates of soil respiration increased by 141% and 176% in the 800 and 1200 μL L^?1 plantations, respectively, when compared with ambient [CO₂] after 4 years of exposure. However, the increase in decomposition of old SOM (i.e. already present when CO₂ treatments began) accounted for 72% and 69% of the increase in soil respiration seen under elevated [CO₂]. This resulted in a net loss of soil C at a rate that was between 10 and 20 times faster at elevated [CO₂] than at ambient conditions. The inability to retain new and old C in the soil may stem from the lack of stabilization of SOM, allowing for its rapid decomposition by soil heterotrophs.     

Influence of rhizodeposition under elevated CO2 on plant nutrition and soil organic matter

Atmospheric CO₂ concentrations can influence ecosystem carbon storage through net primary production (NPP), soil carbon storage, or both. In assessing the potential for carbon storage in terrestrial ecosystems under elevated CO₂, both NPP and processing of soil organic matter (SOM), as well as the multiple links between them, must be examined. Within this context, both the quantity and quality of carbon flux from roots to soil are important, since roots produce specialized compounds that enhance nutrient acquisition (affecting NPP), and since the flux of organic compounds from roots to soil fuels soil microbial activity (affecting processing of SOM).From the perspective of root physiology, a technique is described which uses genetically engineered bacteria to detect the distribution and amount of flux of particular compounds from single roots to non-sterile soils. Other experiments from several labs are noted which explore effects of elevated CO₂ on root acid phosphatase, phosphomonoesterase, and citrate production, all associated with phosphorus nutrition. From a soil perspective, effects of elevated CO₂ on the processing of SOM developed under a C4 grassland but planted with C3 California grassland species were examined under low (unamended) and high (amended with 20 g m^–2 NPK) nutrients; measurements of soil atmosphere 13C combined with soil respiration rates show that during vegetative growth in February, elevated CO₂ decreased respiration of carbon from C4 SOM in high nutrient soils but not in unamended soils.This emphasis on the impacts of carbon loss from roots on both NPP and SOM processing will be essential to understanding terrestrial ecosystem carbon storage under changing atmospheric CO₂ concentrations.Abbreviations SOM soil organic matter - NPP net primary productivity - NEP net ecosystem productivity - PNPP p-nitrophenyl phosphate     

The variation of soil microbial respiration with depth in relation to soil carbon composition

The vertical variation in soil microbial respiratory activity and its relationship to organic carbon pools is critical for modeling soil C stock and predicting impacts of climate change, but is not well understood. Mineral soil samples, taken from four Scottish soils at different depths (0–8, 8–16, 16–24, 24–32 cm), were analyzed and incubated in the laboratory under constant temperature and environmental conditions. The vegetation type/plant species showed significant effects on the absolute concentration of C components and microbial activity, but the relative distribution of C and respiration rate with soil depth are similar across sites. Soil C pools and microbial respiratory activity declined rapidly with soil depth, with about 30% of total organic carbon (TOC) and dissolved organic carbon (DOC), and about half microbial carbon (C_mic) and respired CO₂ observed in the top 8 cm. The ratio of CO₂:TOC generally decreased with soil depth, but CO₂:DOC was significantly higher in the top 8 cm of soil than in the subsoil (8–32 cm). No general pattern between qCO₂ (CO₂:C_mic) and soil depth was found. The vertical distributions of soil C pools and microbial respiratory activity were best fitted with a single exponential equation. Compared with TOC and DOC, C_mic appears to be an adequate predictor for the variation in microbial respiration rate with soil depth, with 95% of variation in normalized respiration rate accounted for by a linear relationship.     

Isotope fractionation and 13C enrichment in soil profiles during the decomposition of soil organic matter

The mechanisms behind the ¹³C enrichment of organic matter with increasing soil depth in forests are unclear. To determine if ¹³C discrimination during respiration could contribute to this pattern, we compared δ¹³C signatures of respired CO₂ from sieved mineral soil, litter layer and litterfall with measurements of δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N of mineral soil, litter layer, litterfall, roots and fungal mycelia sampled from a 68-year-old Norway spruce forest stand planted on previously cultivated land. Because the land was subjected to ploughing before establishment of the forest stand, shifts in δ¹³C in the top 20 cm reflect processes that have been active since the beginning of the reforestation process. As ¹³C-depleted organic matter accumulated in the upper soil, a 1.0‰ δ¹³C gradient from −28.5‰ in the litter layer to −27.6‰ at a depth of 2–6 cm was formed. This can be explained by the 1‰ drop in δ¹³C of atmospheric CO₂ since the beginning of reforestation together with the mixing of new C (forest) and old C (farmland). However, the isotopic change of the atmospheric CO₂ explains only a portion of the additional 1.0‰ increase in δ¹³C below a depth of 20 cm. The δ¹³C of the respired CO₂ was similar to that of the organic matter in the upper soil layers but became increasingly ¹³C enriched with depth, up to 2.5‰ relative to the organic matter. We hypothesise that this ¹³C enrichment of the CO₂ as well as the residual increase in δ¹³C of the organic matter below a soil depth of 20 cm results from the increased contribution of ¹³C-enriched microbially derived C with depth. Our results suggest that ¹³C discrimination during microbial respiration does not contribute to the ¹³C enrichment of organic matter in soils. We therefore recommend that these results should be taken into consideration when natural variations in δ¹³C of respired CO₂ are used to separate different components of soil respiration or ecosystem respiration.     

贵州喀斯特地区典型土壤有机碳垂直分布特征及其同位素组成

以贵州喀斯特地区两种主要土壤类型(石灰土和黄壤)为研究对象,通过测定土壤pH值、土壤有机碳(SOC)含量和植物优势种、枯枝落叶、土壤有机质的稳定同位素(δ13Csoc值)组成,探讨了该地区石灰土和黄壤剖面SOC垂直分布特征和δ13Csoc值组成差异。结果表明,与黄壤相比,石灰土剖面的SOC含量较高,石灰土剖面和黄壤剖面SOC含量变化范围分别在3.6～69.8和2.4～51.2g·kg-1。黄壤和黄色石灰土剖面SOC主要集中在0～20cm深度内,而黑色石灰土剖面从0～60cm逐步减少。黑色石灰土和黄壤剖面δ13Csoc值变化范围分别在-22.9‰～-21.5‰和-25.6‰～-22.4‰,前者较后者变化小。从剖面表土向下,黄壤剖面δ13Csoc值均出现逐步增加的趋势,而石灰土剖面δ13Csoc值从剖面表土向下出现上升-降低-不变的变化趋势。黄色石灰土剖面δ13Csoc值变幅较大,变化范围为-23.7‰～-18.2‰。在枯枝落叶转化为表层土壤有机质的过程中,石灰土剖面δ13Csoc值变幅高于黄壤。其中,黄壤剖面δ13Csoc值升高了2.6‰～3.0‰,石灰土剖面δ13Csoc值升高了5.5‰～6.3‰。上述结果揭示了SOC含量及其δ13C值随深度变化的差异,反映植物残体的输入及其在土壤中分解累积特征,有助于揭示SOC循环过程及规律和了解剖面土壤成土过程。