On the Gene Pool of Roe Deer (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Capreolus</Emphasis>) of Eastern Europe: Analysis of the Cyt <Emphasis Type="Italic">b</Emphasis> Gene Sequence Variability

Sequence analysis of the mtDNA cytochrome b gene (974 bp) was performed using 139 roe deer specimens from different regions of the European part of Russia and Ukraine. The data obtained showed that, at present, both European and Siberian roe deer inhabit this part of the range with predominance of the later: about 60% of individuals carry various Siberian haplotypes, most of which are similar to those in the populations of Capreolus pygargus from the Urals, Siberia, and the Far East. A great variety of mtDNA haplotypes of Siberian roe deer in Eastern Europe is undoubtedly caused by the heterogeneity of founder individuals (immigrants) that were imported from different parts of Asia. Some problems of coexistence of closely related species are discussed.     

Different dispersal histories of lineages of the earthworm <Emphasis Type="Italic">Aporrectodea caliginosa</Emphasis> (Lumbricidae,Annelida) in the Palearctic

Earthworms are among the most abundant and ecologically important invasive species, and are therefore a good object for studying genetic processes in invasive populations. Aporrectodea caliginosa is one of the most widespread invasive earthworms in the temperate zone. It is believed to have dispersed from Europe to all continents except Antarctica. It is known that A. caliginosa consists of three genetic lineages, and genetic diversity is high both among and between them. We attempted to use that high genetic diversity to study A. caliginosa dispersal in the Palearctic based on a sample of 40 localities ranging from eastern Europe to the Russian Far East, and to compare our data to other studies on this species in western Europe and North America. Two genetic lineages were found in the studied sample. Only negligible decrease in genetic diversity was observed for the lineage 2 of A. caliginosa from West Europe to the Far East, suggesting multiple human-mediated introductions. In contrast, lineage 3 is abundant in West Europe and Belarus, but is absent from the East European Plain, the Urals, and the Far East. However, it is present in West Siberia, where it has greatly reduced genetic diversity, indicating long-distance dispersal accompanied by a bottleneck event. Thus, although these two lineages of A. caliginosa are morphologically indistinguishable, they have dramatic differences in their distributions and dispersal histories.     

Phylogeography and demographic history of Siberian rubythroat <Emphasis Type="Italic">Luscinia calliope</Emphasis>

Phylogeographic analysis on the basis of individual marker variability provides insight into the history and mechanisms of the range formation of widely distributed species. A preliminary study of the mtDNA cytochrome b gene in Siberian rubythroat Luscinia calliope revealed the existence of three well-differentiated haplogroups, including one western and two eastern haplogroups. Continuing the study of the genetic markers of the species, we found that, in western part of the range, represented by the nominative geographic race, there were almost exclusively haplotypes of western group. In eastern populations of Khabarovsk krai, Chukotka, Kamchatka, and Sakhalin, haplotypes of all groups are mixed in different proportions. At the same time, the populations of Hokkaido and Iturup islands are exclusively represented by individuals with eastern haplotypes. Comparison of the identified nuclear copies of mitochondrial genes and construction of the phylogenetic network of haplotypes on the basis of cloned and initial sequences showed that two groups of eastern haplotypes (one of which geographically corresponded to L. c. anadyrensis and L. c. camtschatkensis and the second corresponded to L. c. sachalinensis) originated from nuclear pseudogenes of L. c. calliope through intergenomic recombination. In this regard, we propose a new hypothesis for the establishment of the modern range of this species, according to which the Siberian rubythroat dispersal from South Siberia occurred in two stages. At first, the species expanded its range to the northeast in the direction of the Kolyma and Koryak uplands. During the settling of these areas of northeastern Asia, a recombination between the mitochondrial and nuclear DNA took place, which led to the forming of a new haplotype, which was widespread in the emerging breeding populations. Birds with recombinant haplotypes populated the territories of Chukotka and Kamchatka, and then gradually occupied the Kuril Islands and, eventually, reached Hokkaido. At the next stage, Siberian rubythroat, probably, appeared in Sakhalin Island during spring migration, where some individuals stopped for breeding. Settling of the island was accompanied by similar intergenomic recombination and rapid fixation of a new recombinant haplotype with its subsequent spread across Sakhalin. The insular way of dispersal is completely repeated by modern migrants.     

The Evolutionary History and Genetic Diversity of Kinkajous, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Potos flavus</Emphasis> (Carnivora,Procyonidae)

The genus Potos (Procyonidae) is currently recognized as a monotypic genus comprising the single species Potos flavus, the kinkajou. Kinkajous are widely distributed throughout forested habitats of tropical Central and South America, extending from eastern Brazil across central Bolivia, eastern Peru, northern Ecuador, Guianas, Suriname, Venezuela, Colombia, and then through Central America and into western Mexico. The taxonomic history of the species is complex, with seven or eight subspecies historically recognized to acknowledge the phenotypic variation among populations. In this study, the systematics and the evolutionary history of Potos flavus were investigated based on the mitochondrial gene cytochrome b, including specimens from a large range of localities, covering most of the distribution of the species, from central Middle America (Costa Rica and Panama) through South America (Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Brazil, Guyana, and French Guiana). Analyses of 30 Potos flavus sequences showed 27 haplotypes that were grouped in five main clades in all phylogenetic analyses. These clades suggested a high geographic structure with specimens from (1) Costa Rica, (2) Guianas and North Brazil, (3) North Peru, (4) Ecuador and Panama, (5a) interfluves Branco-Negro rivers in the Brazilian Amazon, (5b) Eastern Atlantic Forest, (5c) Amazonian lowlands east Negro river including Bolivia, Peru, and West Brazil. Each of these clades differs from 4.5 % to 9.3 % in their genetic distance estimates, which suggests that the specific status of some of these lineages should be reconsidered. Divergence dating and biogeographic analysis suggested that crown Potos diversified in the Miocene-Pliocene in South America, and geographic barriers, such as savannas and rivers, may have played a significant role in the kinkajou diversification.     

High Diversity of mtDNA Haplotypes Confirms Syntopic Occurrence of Two Field Mouse Species <Emphasis Type="Italic">Apodemus uralensis</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">A. witherbyi</Emphasis> (Muridae: <Emphasis Type="Italic">Apodemus</Emphasis>) in Armenia

Wood mice of the genus Apodemus belong to the most frequent and epidemiologically important rodents of Europe and adjacent regions. Previous studies showed that in the Middle East region species of this genus exhibit extraordinary morphological similarity precluding their proper determination without application of molecular characters. In order to determine the species of the studied populations and to obtain an insight into their phylogeographic history, we analyzed their genetic variation. We sequenced 1139 bp fragment of the mitochondrial DNA control region and flanking tRNA genes in samples collected from six localities. Phylogenetic analyses revealed presence of distinct clades corresponding to species A. uralensis and A. witherbyi. In most localities we confirmed presence of both species which suggests their large sympatric and syntopic occurrence. We recognized an extensive genetic variability, 38 specimens of A. uralensis belong to 32 distinct haplotypes, while 19 specimens of A. witherbyi to 14 haplotypes. We confirmed presence of several distinct haplotypes that may originate from multiple wood mouse colonization waves from distinct geographic regions.     

Cosmopolitan Distribution of the Spitting Spider <Emphasis Type="Italic">Scytodes thoracica</Emphasis> Latreille, 1802 (Aranei,Scytodidae) and Its New Findings in the Northern Parts of the Range

We have compiled data on the distribution of spitting spider Scytodes thoracica Latreille, 1802 throughout the world and discussed our original findings of the spider in the northern part of its Eurasian range. This cosmopolitan species has a Mediterranean origin; the only place where it has not been found is Antarctica. The wide distribution of this species is due to the anthropogenic factor. However, S. thoracica demonstrates synanthropic behavior outside its natural range. Based on the published data of studies in the Mediterranean region, we describe the range of this species as a synanthrope; there lies the northern border of its range. We also determine the northern border of the range in natural areas (including agricultural landscapes). The southern region of the Middle Volga is the northernmost location of S. thoracica in the natural ecosystems of Eastern Europe and the easternmost location in the natural ecosystems of northern Eurasia.     

Polymorphism of the 12S rRNA gene and phylogeography of the Central Asian tortoises <Emphasis Type="Italic">Agrionemys horsfieldii</Emphasis> gray, 1844

Based on intraspecific polymorphism of 12S rRNA gene, genetic variation of isolated populations of the Central Asian tortoise, Agrionemys horsfieldii, was for the first time investigated on a large part of the species distribution range, encompassing Uzbekistan, southern Kazakhstan, and northern and eastern Iran. In 59 tortoises, four haplotypes were discovered, including two (AH1 and AH2), described earlier. Haplotype AH1 was detected in 52 tortoises, inhabiting southern Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan. Haplotype AH2 was found in four tortoises from the border territory between Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, and Afghanistan. Two novel haplotypes, AH3 and AH4, were detected in the three tortoises from Iran. Based on nucleotide substitutions in the 12S rDNA sequence, the possible divergence time between the tortoises from different parts of the range was estimated. Possible pathways of the formation of modern intraspecific groups of A. horsfieldii are discussed.     

Variability of Minisatellite Loci and mtDNA in Individuals with and without B Chromosomes from Populations of the Grasshopper <Emphasis Type="Italic">Dichroplus elongatus</Emphasis>

Dichroplus elongatus is an extensively distributed South American grasshopper considered a pest of major crops. Argentinean populations show a widespread B-chromosome polymorphism which could be maintained as the result trade-offs among opposite selective effects and interactions with their mitotic instability. The main objective of this study was to evaluate the relationships between B chromosomes and mtDNA sequences coupled with minisatellites loci, and verify the genotype/karyotype covariation in 12 populations located at both sides of Paraná River (Eastern and Western Regions). B carrier individuals showed significantly higher genetic diversity (H_E and X) respect to standard individuals. AMOVAs based on nuclear loci and mtDNA sequence datasets showed statistically significant levels of differentiation among karyotypes in the Eastern Region. Cluster analysis through Bayesian procedure considering nuclear loci splits B carriers and standard individuals into different genetic clusters in some Eastern populations. The Bayesian phylogenetic analysis showed two divergent mtDNA clades. Haplogroup 1 is composed exclusively of standard individuals, however all B chromosome carriers are included in haplogroup 2. There is an association between some haplotypes and B chromosomes and a strong effect of phylogenetic signal on B chromosome population structure. Genetic differentiation between karyotypes at Eastern Region revealed by AMOVA, Bayesian approaches and clustering analysis based on uniparental and biparental inherited markers may be due to the inherent nature of the B chromosome, to karyotype biased dispersal or to difference tolerance of B chromosomes on different genetic background. The combination of molecular and chromosome analysis performed in this study indicated that B chromosomes in D. elongatus is an important factor in explaining the genetic population structure at minisatellite and mitochondrial DNA levels.     

Genetic structure of the populations of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Dactylorhiza ochroleuca</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">D. incarnata</Emphasis> (Orchidaceae) in the area of their joint growth in Russia and Belarus

We carried out an allozyme analysis to investigate polymorphism and genetic structure of the populations of D. incarnata and D. ochroleuca in regions of their joint growth in Russia and Belarus. We found that D. ochroleuca individuals in the populations of the Urals and Siberia, which are distant fragments from the main range of the species, do not differ significantly from individuals within the main part of the area (Belarus) on the basis of the allelic composition of eight gene loci. We revealed that D. ochroleuca and D. incarnata are differentiated by different alleles of the GDH locus. Thus, we established a genetic marker suitable to distinguish these closely related taxa. In addition to the GDH locus, D. ochroleuca and D. incarnata in the places of their joint growth, differ in the allelic structure of the PGI and NADHD loci. D. incarnata from the Urals and Siberia were polymorphic for both loci, and individuals from Belarus were polymorphic for one locus (PGI). In contrast, all D. ochroleuca individuals growing in sympatric populations with polymorphic D. incarnata were homozygous for the same alleles. Thus, comparison of the genetic structure of D. ochroleuca and D. incarnata points to the existence of a genetic isolation and a functioning isolation mechanism even under conditions of their joint growth. We found that the GDH locus in D. incarnata is polymorphic only in populations which grow together with D. ochroleuca, with exception a few examples. Thus, we conclude that variability of the GDH locus in D. incarnata is associated with hybridization with D. ochroleuca.     

The endosymbiont <Emphasis Type="Italic">Wolbachia</Emphasis> in Eurasian populations of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Drosophila melanogaster</Emphasis>

The endosymbiotic α-proteobacteria Wolbachia is widely spread among arthropods and Filariidae nematodes. This bacterium is transmitted vertically via a transovarian route. Wolbachia is a cause of several reproductive abnormalities in the host species. We analyzed the isofemale lines created using flies collected from Drosophila melanogaster natural populations for infection with the endosymbiont Wolbachia. Wolbachia were genotyped according to five variable markers: the presence of insertion sequence IS5 in two loci, the copy number of two minisatellite repeats, and an inversion. Overall, 665 isofemale lines isolated from the populations of D. melanogaster from Ukraine, Belarus, Moldova, Caucasus, Central Asia, Ural, Udmurtia, Altai, West and East Siberia, and Far East in 1974 through 2005 were used in the work. The samples from Ukrainian, Altaian, and Middle Asian populations were largest. The infection rate of D. melanogaster populations from Middle Asia, Altaian, and Eastern Europe (Ukraine, Moldavia, and Belarus) with Wolbachia amounted to 64, 56, and 39%, respectively. The D. melanogaster population from the Caucasus displayed heterogeneity in the genotypes of this cytoplasmic infection. The Wolbachia genotype wMel, detected in all the populations studied, was the most abundant. The genotype wMelCS2 was always present in the populations from Middle Asia and Altai and was among the rare variants in the D. melanogaster populations from the Eastern Europe. Single instances of the Wolbachia genotype wMelCS occurred in a few flies from the Central Asian and Altai populations, but was not found this genotype in the other regions.     

Cryptic invasion of Italian pool frogs (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Pelophylax bergeri</Emphasis>) across Western Europe unraveled by multilocus phylogeography

Human introductions of exotic amphibians can have catastrophic effects on native species. However, they usually remain unnoticed without genetic tools when species are difficult to distinguish morphologically. In Western Europe, pool frogs (Pelophylax sp.) make a worrisome case: recent genetic data showed the presence of Italian (Pelophylax bergeri) mtDNA haplotypes within the range of the threatened European Pelophylax lessonae, two morphologically similar taxa. Here we conduct a multilocus phylogeographic and population genetic survey of European and Italian pool frogs (combining present and historic samples), to investigate the origin(s) and consequences of potential introductions. Results are unequivocal: we show that the alien P. bergeri have extensively invaded France and north-Alpine Switzerland, and have also deeply introgressed with P. lessonae, which has led to the complete replacement of most populations. Alien specimens have probably been translocated multiple times from Central Italy at least prior to the 1960s. Based on our dense sampling, only two areas, north and south of the Alps still host native pool frogs in Switzerland, the Joux Valley near the French border and the canton of Ticino, respectively. Importantly, we show that these last P. lessonae populations are remnants of a private genetic diversity specific to Western Europe, which vanished during the P. bergeri’s invasion. Our study emphasizes the risk of genetic pollution during invasion by human-introduced taxa and brings alarming concern regarding uncontrolled amphibian translocations. Moreover, it demonstrates the necessity for genetic surveys to detect and monitor these invasions, especially where species determination is problematic.     

Phylogeographical structure inferred from cpDNA sequence variation of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Zygophyllum xanthoxylon</Emphasis> across north-west China

Zygophyllum xanthoxylon, a desert species, displaying a broad east–west continuous distribution pattern in arid Northwestern China, can be considered as a model species to investigate the biogeographical history of this region. We sequenced two chloroplast DNA spacers (psbK-psbI and rpl32-trnL) in 226 individuals from 31 populations to explore the phylogeographical structure. Median-joining network was constructed and analysis of AMOVA, SMOVA, neutrality tests and distribution analysis were used to examine genetic structure and potential range expansion. Using species distribution modeling, the geographical distribution of Z. xanthoxylon was modeled during the present and at the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM). Among 26 haplotypes, one was widely distributed, but most was restricted to either the eastern or western region. The populations with the highest levels of haplotype diversity were found in the Tianshan Mountains and its surroundings in the west, and the Helan Mountains and Alxa Plateau in the east. AMOVA and SAMOVA showed that over all populations, the species lacks phylogeographical structure, which is speculated to be the result of its specific biology. Neutrality tests and mismatch distribution analysis support past range expansions of the species. Comparing the current distribution to those cold and dry conditions in LGM, Z. xanthoxylon had a shrunken and more fragmented range during LGM. Based on the evidences from phylogeographical patterns, distribution of genetic variability, and paleodistribution modeling, Z. xanthoxylon is speculated most likely to have originated from the east and migrated westward via the Hexi Corridor.     

Colonization history of Scots pine in Eastern Europe and North Asia based on mitochondrial DNA variation

During Quaternary glaciations, the ranges of Northern Eurasia forest species periodically experienced contraction followed by subsequent re-colonizations in the interglacial intervals. However, unlike the broadleaf trees of temperate forests, taiga species seem not to have retreated fully to southern regions in unfavorable periods and possibly survived at mid-latitudes in multiple refugia. Here, we report a study of genetic variation of three mitochondrial DNA markers in 90 populations of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) located from Eastern Europe to Eastern Siberia. The geographic distribution of seven mitotypes demonstrated the split between western and eastern populations approximately along the 38th meridian. Genetic diversity in the western part was significantly higher than in the eastern one. Five mitotypes were western- and one eastern-specific. One mitotype was common in both regions, but in the eastern part it occurred only in the South Urals and adjacent areas. The geographic structure in the mitotype distribution supports a hypothesis of post-glacial re-colonization of the studied territory from the European and Ural refugia.     

Genetic variation and phylogeography of the bank vole (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Clethrionomys glareolus</Emphasis>, Arvicolinae,Rodentia) in Russia with special reference to the introgression of the mtDNA of a closely related species,red-backed vole (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Cl. rutilus</Emphasis>)

Totally, 294 bank voles (Clethrionomys glareolus) and 18 red-backed voles (Cl. rutilus) from 62 sites of European Russia were studied. Incomplete sequences (967 bp) of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene were determined for 93 Cl. glareolus individuals from 56 sites and 18 Cl. rutilus individuals from the same habitats. Analysis of the cytochrome b gene variation has demonstrated that practically the entire European part of Russia, Ural, and a considerable part of Western Europe are inhabited by bank voles of the same phylogroup, displaying an extremely low genetic differentiation. Our data suggest that Cl. glareolus very rapidly colonized over the presently occupied territory in the post-Pleistocene period from no more than two (central European and western European) refugia from ancestral populations with a small effective size. PCR typing of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene allowed us to assess the scale of mtDNA introgression from a closely related species, Cl. rutilus, and to outline the geographical zone of this introgression. Comparison with the red-backed vole haplotypes in the habitats shared by both species favors the hypothesis of an ancient hybridization event (mid-Holocene) and a subsequent introgression. These results suggest that the hybridization took place in the southern and middle Pre-Ural region.     

Population genetic structure of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Helix pomatia</Emphasis> L. (Mollusca,Pulmonata) from the southeastern and eastern parts of the range

On the basis of the analysis of genetic variation detectable by ISSR-PCR, the state of the gene pools of 14 populations of Roman snail Helix pomatia L. in the conditions of urbanized landscapes of the southeastern and eastern parts of the current range was examined. According to the data obtained, the majority of the studied populations of this mollusk are in satisfactory condition. This is evidenced by the increased level of genetic diversity (H _e = 0.199 ± 0.025, I _sh = 0.306 ± 0.035) and the high values of effective population size, calculated, on the basis of the straight-line regression equation, between the pairwise genetic and geographic distances (Ne = 2.0–4.9) that are comparable with indigenous common species of terrestrial mollusks. Despite the high level of differentiation (G_st = 0.255, Φ_st = 0.233, N _m = 0.822), the population distribution was not random (R _m =–0.591, p = 0.0004) and corresponded to the model of isolation by distance. It is hypothesized that, in the adventitious colonies of this mollusk, effective formation of a balanced genetic structure takes place that, in the context of biological and ecological features, facilitates its adaptation to the conditions of an urban environment and the population of the new territories of Eastern Europe.     

Haplotype diversity of mt<Emphasis Type="Italic">COI</Emphasis> in the fall webworm <Emphasis Type="Italic">Hyphantria cunea</Emphasis> (Lepidoptera: Arctiidae) in introduced regions in China,Iran, Japan,Korea, and its homeland,the United States

Hyphantria cunea (Drury) has colonized many countries outside its native range of North America and has become a model species for studies of the colonization and subsequent adaptation of agricultural pests. Molecular genetic analyses can clarify the origin and subsequent adaptations to non-native habitats. Using the mitochondrial COI gene, we examined the genetic relationships between invasive populations (China, Iran, Japan, and Korea) and native populations (i.e., the United States). The Jilin (China) and Guilan (Iran) populations showed nine previously unknown haplotypes that differed from those found in the south–central United States, suggesting multiple colonization events and different regions of invasion. A dominant mtDNA haplotype in populations in the United States was shared by all of the populations investigated, suggesting that H. cunea with that haplotype have successfully colonized China, Iran, Japan, and Korea.     

The colonization history of the Mediterranean dwarf palm (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Chamaerops humilis</Emphasis> L., Palmae)

Chamaerops humilis L. (Mediterranean dwarf palm) is an important floristic element of the western Mediterranean region because it is the only palm species naturally distributed in both Europe and Africa. The combination of a time-calibrated phylogeny, a haplotype network and genetic diversity analyses based on plastid sequences, together with previous nuclear DNA fingerprint results, helped reconstruct the colonization history of the dwarf palm. Based on a sample of 218 individuals taken from 29 geographical areas that cover the current distribution of Chamaerops, we detected four plastid DNA (petA-psbJ) haplotypes distributed in two haplotype groups (lineage 1: haplotypes A/B; lineage 2: haplotypes C/D). Haplotypes A, B, and C showed a widespread geographical distribution in both Africa and Europe, whereas haplotype D was restricted to two African localities. Paleobotanical data, species distribution modeling and divergence time estimates suggest that Chamaerops diverged from Trachycarpus in the Miocene (27.05–6.05 Ma), followed by a split of the two C. humilis lineages that remained isolated during the Miocene-Pliocene. Divergence estimates also support a derived split into two haplotypes (A/B) in the Pleistocene, when the Mediterranean Sea barrier was in existence. This, together with geographical distribution of haplotypes A and B, strongly suggests that the disjunct distribution of C. humilis haplotypes in Europe and Africa is the result of long-distance dispersal (LDD) events rather than vicariance. In agreement with recurrent gene flow (events of LDD colonization), AMOVA revealed that most of the genetic variance was found among populations (61.52%). Irrespective of predominant plant translocations by humans or seed dispersal by natural means, our results support that current populations are the result of relatively recent contacts between Africa and Europe in the Quaternary.     

Genetic diversity of endangered brown bear (Ursus arctos) populations at the crossroads of Europe, Asia and Africa

Aim  Middle East brown bears ( Ursus arctos syriacus Hemprich and Ehrenberg, 1828) are presently on the edge of extinction. However, little is known of their genetic diversity. This study investigates that question as well as that of Middle East brown bear relationships to surrounding populations of the species.
Location  Middle East region of south-western Asia.
Methods  We performed DNA analyses on 27 brown bear individuals. Twenty ancient bone samples (Late Pleistocene to 20th century) from natural populations and seven present-day samples obtained from captive individuals were analysed.
Results  Phylogenetic analyses of the mitochondrial sequences obtained from seven ancient specimens identify three distinct maternal clades, all unrelated to one recently described from North Africa. Brown bears from Iran exhibit striking diversity (three individuals, three haplotypes) and form a unique clade that cannot be linked to any extant one. Individuals from Syria belong to the Holarctic clade now observed in Eastern Europe, Turkey, Japan and North America. Specimens from Lebanon surprisingly appear as tightly linked to the clade of brown bears now in Western Europe. Moreover, we show that U. a. syriacus in captivity still harbour haplotypes closely linked to those found in ancient individuals.
Main conclusion  This study brings important new information on the genetic diversity of brown bear populations at the crossroads of Europe, Asia and Africa. It reveals a high level of diversity in Middle East brown bears and extends the historical distribution of the Western European clade to the East. Our analyses also suggest the value of a specific breeding programme for captive populations.     

Genetic diversity of the cytochrome b gene fragment haplotypes in red-backed vole <Emphasis Type="Italic">Myodes</Emphasis> (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Clethrionomys</Emphasis>) <Emphasis Type="Italic">rutilus</Emphasis> Pallas, 1779

For the first time, genetic analysis of the cytochrome b gene fragment haplotypes encoding the identical and the most common cytochrome b polypeptide (F1) in M. rutilus from eastern and Beringian maternal lineages was carried out. The F1 frequencies for the vole populations from Northern Priokhotye and the Kolyma basin were calculated. Considerable polymorphism of the cytochrome b F1 haplotypes within two major phylogroups of red-backed vole was supported by high molecular diversity indices for these clades. The proportion of genetic variation between the maternal lineages of F1 red-backed vole individuals (60.71%) was considerably higher than inter(24.44%) and intrapopulation (14.85%) components. The data obtained make it possible to advance a hypothesis on the convergence of the cytochrome b polypeptide structure upon sequence divergence of the corresponding gene.     

Species radiation in the Alps: multiple range shifts caused diversification in Ringlet butterflies in the European high mountains

The distributions of European high mountain species are often characterised by small and geographically isolated populations and, in many cases, have highly complex biogeographic histories. The butterfly genus Erebia represents one of the best examples for small-scale diversification in the European high mountain systems and therefore to understand speciation processes and associated range dynamics of high mountain species. In this study, we analysed 17 polymorphic allozyme loci of 1731 individuals from 49 populations representing four species, one of which has three subspecies: Erebia nivalis; Erebia tyndarus; Erebia ottomana; and Erebia cassioides cassioides, Erebia cassioides arvernensis, and Erebia cassioides neleus. Samples were collected in the high mountain systems of Europe (i.e. Pyrenees, Massif Central, Alps, Apennines, Carpathians, Balkan high mountains). Genetic analyses supported all previously accepted species. However, the genetic differentiation within E. cassioides sensu lato into three geographically delimited groups is justifying species rank: E. arvernensis distributed in the Pyrenees, Massif Central and western Alps; E. cassioides sensu stricto in the eastern Alps and Apennines; and E. neleus in the Balkan mountains and the south-western Carpathians. While the differentiation between western Alps and Massif Central as well as eastern Alps and Apennines was low, the Pyrenees as well as the south-western Carpathians were significantly differentiated from the other regions within the respective taxon. In general, the differentiation among the populations of E. neleus was stronger than between populations of the other taxa. Within E. cassioides, we found a west-east gradient of genetic similarity over the eastern Alps. Based on the obtained genetic structures, we are able to delineate glacial refugia and interglacial range modifications. Based on the genetic structures and genetic diversity patterns, we conclude that, triggered by the glacial-interglacial cycles, repeated range modifications have taken place with subsequent differentiation and speciation in the region of the Alps and Balkans. Colonisations to Pyrenees (E. arvernensis pseudomurina, E. arvernensis pseudocarmenta), Massif Central (E. ottomana tardenota, E. a. arvernensis) and Apennines (E. cassioides majellana) appear to be recent and most probably not older than the last interglacial period.