Natural history and management of chronic aortic valve disease.

Chronic aortic valve disease involving stenosis, regurgitation or both is insidious and progressive. Severe valvular dysfunction may be present for years without symptoms, but functional deterioration is often rapid once congestive heart failure, angina or syncope with effort is present. As the severity of aortic stenosis may not be easy to assess clinically, the relative usefulness of various tests is considered in this paper. The difficulty with chronic aortic regurgitation lies not in diagnosing the problem but in detecting early left ventricular dysfunction in time to perform the surgery that can prevent further functional deterioration. Patients with significant aortic valve disease should undergo surgery when the important symptoms of dyspnea, angina or syncope with effort first appear. Surgery should also be considered in selected patients with aortic regurgitation in whom left ventricular function has diminished even without symptoms.     

Recommended Criteria for Cardiac Catheterization in Patients with Aortic Valve Disease

Criteria for selection of patients with aortic valve disease for cardiac catheterization are described, based on a study of 81 cases. Children with aortic stenosis warrant catheterization at the time when the clinical diagnosis is made, but in adults this examination may be deferred until symptoms appear or left ventricular hypertrophy is recognized. In patients with pure aortic insufficiency catheterization may be deferred until symptoms appear. When severe stenosis and insufficiency co-exist, the valve is usually heavily calcified. Thirty-seven per cent of patients with aortic valve disease have co-existing mitral lesions and these patients are usually women, are fibrillating and, as a rule, have atrial enlargement in contrast to those with aortic valve disease only. On rare occasions, patients with mitral valve disease have clinically silent but angiographically demonstrable aortic insufficiency; therefore, aortography should precede open-heart correction of a mitral lesion so as to detect minor degrees of aortic insufficiency.     

Respective impacts of aortic stenosis and systemic hypertension on left ventricular hypertrophy

It has been reported that 30-40% of patients with aortic stenosis are hypertensive. In such patients, the left ventricle faces a double (i.e. valvular and vascular) pressure overload, which results in subsequent wall volume hypertrophy. From a clinical standpoint, it is difficult to separate the respective contributions of aortic stenosis and systemic hypertension to left ventricular burden and patient's symptoms and thus to predict whether valve replacement would be beneficial. The objective of this theoretical study was therefore to investigate the relative effects of valvular and vascular afterloads on left ventricular hypertrophy. We used a ventricular-valvular-vascular mathematical model in combination with the Arts' model describing the myofiber stress. Left ventricular wall volume was computed for different aortic blood pressure levels and different degrees of aortic stenosis severity. Our simulations show that the presence of concomitant systemic hypertension has a major influence on the development of left ventricular hypertrophy in patients with aortic stenosis. These results also suggest that mild-to-moderate aortic stenosis has a minor impact on left ventricular wall volume when compared with hypertension. On the other hand, when aortic stenosis is severe, wall volume increases exponentially with increasing aortic stenosis severity and the impact of aortic stenosis on left ventricular hypertrophy becomes highly significant.     

Congenital nasal pyriform aperture stenosis: diagnosis and treatment

Congenital nasal pyriform aperture stenosis is an unusual form of nasal airway obstruction in the neonate. Pediatric plastic surgeons are often involved in the management of these children and should recognize this condition and know the treatment options. Fifteen cases of children with congenital nasal pyriform aperture stenosis were reviewed for presentation of the disorder, management, and effectiveness of treatment, making it the largest series to date. There were nine male patients and six female patients in the series. They all experienced varying degrees of nasal obstruction at birth and were managed on the basis of the severity of their symptoms. Twelve patients were treated surgically in the first year of life, with a mean age at operation of 97 days (range, 3 to 362 days). Two patients required surgical intervention during their teenage years (age, 14 and 18 years) because of persistent symptoms, and one patient (age, 2 years) with mild symptoms was managed medically. Associated craniofacial anomalies were present in six cases (40 percent). Surgical enlargement of the pyriform aperture was successfully performed through an upper buccal sulcus incision in 14 patients. Preoperative symptoms of upper airway obstruction were improved in all patients at an average follow-up of 2.4 years (range, 1 month to 5 years). Congenital nasal pyriform aperture stenosis varies in presentation and severity, occurring either as an isolated congenital anomaly or in association with developmental craniofacial anomalies. It can be effectively managed by surgical enlargement of the pyriform aperture without significant recurrence or long-term morbidity.     

颈动脉狭窄的显微外科治疗

目的:评价颈动脉内膜剥脱术治疗颅外颈动脉狭窄的疗效,以及经颅多普勒超声(TCD)、微血管多普勒超声(MVD)应用的价值。方法:回顾性分析2012年5月至2013年5月采用颈动脉内膜剥脱术治疗的19例颅外颈动脉狭窄的资料。均伴有不同程度的脑缺血症状。颈动脉狭窄程度2例中度狭窄,17例重度狭窄。同时行颈动脉内膜剥脱术均在显微镜下操作。1例采用补片成形。18例术中采用TCD及MVD监测下完成,1例未采用超声监测。结果:手术成功率为100%,无死亡率。术前脑缺血症状术后患者均有不同程度的恢复。均未发现过度灌注的并发症。结论:颈动脉内膜剥脱术治疗颅外颈动脉狭窄是一种安全、有效的措施;MVD及TCD监测对于显微手术有着重要意义。     

Balloon dilatation of the aortic valve for inoperable aortic stenosis.

The place of balloon dilatation of the aortic valve in the treatment of calcific aortic stenosis is controversial. Thirty two patients (mean age 76) in whom valve replacement was contraindicated were followed up for three to 24 months (mean 8); 25 were in functional class III or IV according to the New York Heart Association''s classification. Major complications of the procedure occurred in four patients. Echocardiography and Doppler studies were performed before operation and before discharge in 28 patients, and the area of the valve was measured again six to 50 (mean 23) weeks after operation in 11 patients. The peak to peak aortic pressure gradient fell from a mean of 65 (SD 24) to 46 (20) mm Hg, but the area of the aortic valve, measured by Doppler echocardiography, in 18 patients showed a modest but significant increase, from 0.61 (0.16) to 0.74 (0.23) cm2. One month after dilatation, 29 patients were alive, of whom 17 had improved symptoms. Only two had lasting clinical benefit. Sixteen patients died, 12 of a cardiac cause. The estimated one year survival rate was 49%. Six patients underwent or required valve replacement because of persisting symptoms. In view of its limited long term efficacy balloon dilatation of the aortic valve should be used only for patients with severe symptoms whose life expectancy is limited by other disease or who are considered to be unsuitable for valve replacement. It may have a role in improving the condition of patients who present with cardiogenic shock or pulmonary oedema before valve replacement is undertaken.     

全麻下颈动脉内膜剥脱术的麻醉体会

目的:评价颈动脉内膜剥脱术(CEA)麻醉疗效,以及经颅多普勒超声(TCD)、微血管多普勒超声(MVD)应用的价值,以及适合颈动脉内膜剥脱术的适合麻醉方法。方法:回顾性分析苏州大学附属一医院脑卒中中心2012年5月至2013年5月所进行的颈动脉内膜剥脱术治疗的19名颅外颈动脉狭窄患者的资料。患者临床症状均伴有不同程度的脑缺血症状。颈动脉狭窄程度2例中度狭窄,17例重度狭窄。所有手术操作均全麻下在显微镜下操作。1例采用补片成形。18例术中采用TCD及MVD监测下完成,1例未采用超声监测。结果:手术成功率为100%,无死亡率。术前脑缺血症状术后患者均有恢复。未发现过度灌注的并发症。麻醉效果达到预期目的。结论:颈动脉内膜剥脱术在多普勒超声MVD及TCD监测下治疗颅外颈动脉狭窄是一种安全、有效的措施;全身麻醉下行CEA手术安全可靠。     

Plasma oxysterols and angiographically determined coronary atherosclerosis: a case control study

Several in vitro and in vivo experiments have implicated oxysterols in the aetiology and progression of atherosclerosis. Oxysterols may be formed endogenously by oxidation of cholesterol and thus may form a marker of LDL oxidation. They may also be obtained exogenously through dietary intake. We investigated the association of oxysterols with the degree of coronary stenosis in patients undergoing coronary angiography. Cases with severe coronary atherosclerosis 80 stenosis in one of the major coronary vessels, n =80 were compared with controls with no or minor stenosis 50 stenosis in all three major coronary vessels, n =79 . Cases and controls were prestratified on age, gender and smoking habits. Evaluated were plasma levels of unesterified 7 hydroxycholesterol, 7 hydroxycholesterol, 25 hydroxycholesterol, 7 ketocholesterol, cholestane triol and 5,6 epoxycholestanol. 7 Hydroxycholesterol made up 67 of the total amount of plasma oxysterol concentration and was the only one significantly higher in cases 1.53 mu g per 100 ml vs 1.27 mu g per 100 ml, p 0.05 . Further, cases had somewhat higher LDL cholesterol levels and significantly lower HDL cholesterol levels than controls. After multivariate adjustment to account for this difference in lipid levels and for the prestratification factors the mean difference between cases and controls for 7 hydroxycholesterol 0.14 mu g per 100 ml was no longer significant. Also the other oxysterols showed no significant association with the degree of coronary stenosis. Multiple logistic regression analyses showed an adjusted odds ratio of 1.07 95 CI, 0.45-2.59 in the highest tertile of total plasma oxysterol level. We conclude, that this study does not support the hypothesis that plasma oxysterols form an additional risk factor for coronary atherosclerosis.     

Plasma oxysterols and angiographically determined coronary atherosclerosis: a case control study

Several in vitro and in vivo experiments have implicated oxysterols in the aetiology and progression of atherosclerosis. Oxysterols may be formed endogenously by oxidation of cholesterol and thus may form a marker of LDL oxidation. They may also be obtained exogenously through dietary intake. We investigated the association of oxysterols with the degree of coronary stenosis in patients undergoing coronary angiography. Cases with severe coronary atherosclerosis 80 stenosis in one of the major coronary vessels, n =80 were compared with controls with no or minor stenosis 50 stenosis in all three major coronary vessels, n =79 . Cases and controls were prestratified on age, gender and smoking habits. Evaluated were plasma levels of unesterified 7 hydroxycholesterol, 7 hydroxycholesterol, 25 hydroxycholesterol, 7 ketocholesterol, cholestane triol and 5,6 epoxycholestanol. 7 Hydroxycholesterol made up 67 of the total amount of plasma oxysterol concentration and was the only one significantly higher in cases 1.53 mu g per 100 ml vs 1.27 mu g per 100 ml, p 0.05 . Further, cases had somewhat higher LDL cholesterol levels and significantly lower HDL cholesterol levels than controls. After multivariate adjustment to account for this difference in lipid levels and for the prestratification factors the mean difference between cases and controls for 7 hydroxycholesterol 0.14 mu g per 100 ml was no longer significant. Also the other oxysterols showed no significant association with the degree of coronary stenosis. Multiple logistic regression analyses showed an adjusted odds ratio of 1.07 95 CI, 0.45-2.59 in the highest tertile of total plasma oxysterol level. We conclude, that this study does not support the hypothesis that plasma oxysterols form an additional risk factor for coronary atherosclerosis.     

Preoperative MRI Findings Predict Two-Year Postoperative Clinical Outcome in Lumbar Spinal Stenosis

Purpose

To study the predictive value of preoperative magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) findings for the two-year postoperative clinical outcome in lumbar spinal stenosis (LSS).

Methods

84 patients (mean age 63±11 years, male 43%) with symptoms severe enough to indicate LSS surgery were included in this prospective observational single-center study. Preoperative MRI of the lumbar spine was performed with a 1.5-T unit. The imaging protocol conformed to the requirements of the American College of Radiology for the performance of MRI of the adult spine. Visual and quantitative assessment of MRI was performed by one experienced neuroradiologist. At the two-year postoperative follow-up, functional ability was assessed with the Oswestry Disability Index (ODI 0–100%) and treadmill test (0–1000 m), pain symptoms with the overall Visual Analogue Scale (VAS 0–100 mm), and specific low back pain (LBP) and specific leg pain (LP) separately with a numeric rating scale from 0–10 (NRS-11). Satisfaction with the surgical outcome was also assessed.

Results

Preoperative severe central stenosis predicted postoperatively lower LP, LBP, and VAS when compared in patients with moderate central stenosis (p<0.05). Moreover, severe stenosis predicted higher postoperative satisfaction (p = 0.029). Preoperative scoliosis predicted an impaired outcome in the ODI (p = 0.031) and lowered the walking distance in the treadmill test (p = 0.001). The preoperative finding of only one stenotic level in visual assessment predicted less postoperative LBP when compared with patients having 2 or more stenotic levels (p = 0.026). No significant differences were detected between quantitative measurements and the patient outcome.

Conclusions

Routine preoperative lumbar spine MRI can predict the patient outcome in a two-year follow up in patients with LSS surgery. Severe central stenosis and one-level central stenosis are predictors of good outcome. Preoperative finding of scoliosis may indicate worse functional ability.     

Predictors of severe stenosis at invasive coronary angiography in patients with normal myocardial perfusion imaging

Purpose

Normal myocardial perfusion imaging (MPI) is associated with excellent prognosis. However, in patients with persisting symptoms, it may be difficult to determine the patients in whom invasive angiography is justified to rule out false negative MPI. We evaluated predictors for severe stenosis at invasive angiography in patients with persisting symptoms after normal MPI.

Methods

229 consecutive patients with normal MPI, without previous bypass surgery, underwent invasive angiography within 6 months. Older age was defined as >65 years. Multivariable analyses were performed to adjust for differences in baseline variables.

Results

Mean age was 62?±?11 years, 48% were women. Severe stenosis was observed in 34%, and of these patients 60% had single-vessel disease (not left main coronary artery disease). After adjusting for several variables, including diabetes, smoking status, hypertension and hypercholesterolaemia, predictors of severe stenosis were male gender, odds ratio (OR) 2.7 (95% confidence interval (CI) 1.5–4.9), older age, OR 1.9 (95% CI 1.02–3.54) previous PCI, OR 2.0 (95% CI 1.0–4.3) and typical angina, OR 2.5 (95% CI 1.4–4.6).

Conclusions

Increasing age, male gender, previous PCI and typical symptoms are predictors of severe stenosis at invasive coronary angiography in patients with normal MPI. The majority of these patients have single-vessel disease.

     

Effects of Neck Radiation Therapy on Extra-Cranial Carotid Arteries Atherosclerosis Disease Prevalence: Systematic Review and a Meta-Analysis

Introduction

Radiation arteritis following neck irradiation as a treatment for head and neck malignancy has been well documented. The long-term sequelae of radiation exposure of the carotid arteries may take years to manifest clinically, and extra-cranial carotid artery (ECCA) stenosis is a well-recognised vascular complication. These carotid lesions should not be regarded as benign and should be treated in the same manner as standard carotid stenosis. Previous studies have noted increased cerebrovascular events such as stroke in this cohort of patients because of high-grade symptomatic carotid stenosis resulting in emboli.

Aim

To evaluate the effect of radiation therapy on ECCA atherosclerosis progression.

Methods

Online search for case-control studies and randomised clinical trials that reported on stenosis in extra-cranial carotid arteries in patients with neck malignancies who received radiation therapy (RT) comparing them to patients with neck malignancies who did not receive RT.

Results

Eight studies were included in the final analysis with total of 1070 patients – 596 received RT compared to 474 in the control group. There was statistically significant difference in overall stenosis rate (Pooled risk ratio  =  4.38 [2.98, 6.45], P  =  0.00001) and severe stenosis (Pooled risk ratio  =  7.51 [2.78, 20.32], P <0.0001), both being higher in the RT group. Pooled analysis of the five studies that reported on mild stenosis also showed significant difference (Pooled risk ratio  =  2.74 [1.75, 4.30], 95% CI, P  =  0.0001).

Conclusion

The incidence of severe ECCA stenosis is higher among patients who received RT for neck malignancies. Those patients should be closely monitored and screening programs should be considered in all patients who receive neck RT.     

Occult aortic stenosis as cause of intractable heart failure

During a three-year period 10 patients with critical aortic stenosis were referred to a cardiac referral centre with symptoms and signs of intractable cardiac failure and low cardiac output. In nine patients the correct diagnosis was not suspected at the referring hospital, and in the remaining patient the true severity of the aortic stenosis was not appreciated and cardiomyopathy was suggested as an additional diagnosis. The most common referral diagnoses were severe mitral regurgitation (four patients), congestive cardiomyopathy (two patients), or both (three patients). Only two patients had soft ejection systolic murmurs at the base of the heart radiating into the neck, and such a murmur appeared in a third patient during medical treatment. The carotid pulses were of small volume but the characteristic slow-rising, anacrotic nature of the pulse could not be appreciated clinically. The diagnosis was suspected in nine patients because of aortic valve calcification detected by lateral chest x-ray examination in seven patients and by x-ray screening of the heart in two, and because of abnormal aortic valve echoes in the echocardiogram of all five patients in whom the aortic valve could be seen. Eight patients underwent aortic valve replacement despite seemingly poor preoperative left ventricular function. Three patients died, of whom two had severe coexistent coronary artery disease. The five survivors all returned to normal lives and needed little or no medication.Critical aortic stenosis should be actively sought in patients with severe heart failure of unknown cause since surgery may enable them to resume their normal lives.     

Lumbar spinal stenosis.

Lumbar spinal stenosis, the results of congenital and degenerative constriction of the neural canal and foramina leading to lumbosacral nerve root or cauda equina compression, is a common cause of disability in middle-aged and elderly patients. Advanced neuroradiologic imaging techniques have improved our ability to localize the site of nerve root entrapment in patients presenting with neurogenic claudication or painful radiculopathy. Although conservative medical management may be successful initially, surgical decompression by wide laminectomy or an intralaminar approach should be done in patients with serious or progressive pain or neurologic dysfunction. Because the early diagnosis and treatment of lumbar spinal stenosis may prevent intractable pain and the permanent neurologic sequelae of chronic nerve root entrapment, all physicians should be aware of the different neurologic presentations and the treatment options for patients with spinal stenosis.     

The appropriate use of carotid endarterectomy

FOR THE FIRST 30 YEARS AFTER CAROTID ENDARTERECTOMY WAS FIRST DEVELOPED, anecdotal evidence was used to identify patients with internal carotid artery disease for whom this procedure would be appropriate. More recently, the appropriateness of carotid endarterectomy for symptomatic patients and asymptomatic subjects has emerged from 7 randomized trials. Risk of stroke and benefit from the procedure are greatest for symptomatic patients with at least 70% stenosis of the internal carotid artery. Within this group, carotid endarterectomy is most beneficial for the following patients: otherwise healthy elderly patients, those with hemispheric transient ischemic attack, those with tandem extracranial and intracranial lesions and those without evidence of collateral vessels. Risk of perioperative stroke and death is higher in the following groups, although they still benefit: patients with widespread leukoaraiosis, those with occlusion of the contralateral internal carotid artery and those with intraluminal thrombus. Patients with 50% to 69% stenosis experience lesser benefit, and some other groups may even be harmed by carotid endarterectomy, including women and patients with transient monocular blindness only. The procedure is indicated for patients presenting with lacunar stroke and for those with a nearly occluded internal carotid artery, but the benefit is muted. Patients with less than 50% stenosis do not benefit. In the largest randomized trial of asymptomatic subjects, the perioperative risk of stroke and death was very low (1.5%), but the results indicated that a prohibitively high number of subjects (83) must be treated to prevent one stroke in 2 years. The subsequent literature reported higher perioperative risks (2.8% to 5.6%). In asymptomatic individuals nearly half of the strokes that occur may be due to heart and small-vessel disease. These limitations counter any potential benefit. Another trial is in progress and may identify subgroups of asymptomatic subjects who would benefit. Meanwhile, most individuals without symptoms fare better with medical care.The prevention of ischemic stroke by surgical means goes back half a century. After initial endorsement of carotid endarterectomy, confusion arose as to the appropriate selection of patients and the allowable risk from the procedure. In the past 2 decades large randomized trials have been used to evaluate the benefit of the procedure for patients with symptomatic and asymptomatic disease of the internal carotid artery. Sufficient time has now passed since the publication of these trials to analyze their impact on practice and to make recommendations about the application of carotid endarterectomy. There is strong evidence of benefit in some symptomatic patients, whereas other patients will not benefit and may even face harm. There is weak statistical and weaker clinical evidence that asymptomatic subjects will survive longer without experiencing stroke if they undergo endarterectomy than if they do not. The evidence supporting carotid angioplasty and stenting remains anecdotal and conflicting.The purpose of the present report is to provide a clinical roadmap to which symptomatic patients and asymptomatic subjects with carotid stenosis are candidates for endarterectomy. The risks and complications of endarterectomy are also reported. The outlook and benefit for symptomatic patients and asymptomatic subjects are so different that the evidence supporting appropriate use of endarterectomy in these 2 groups will be presented separately.     

Scientific Section: Coronary Artery Surgery,Task Force Appointed by the Conference of Deputy Ministers of Health: 2. Results,indications and recommendations

The large majority of reported studies of patients treated by aortocoronary bypass have not been randomized clinical trials, and hence must be interpreted with great caution.Review of the seven randomized clinical trials in the literature leads to only one firm, positive conclusion: aortocoronary bypass results in a reduction in the morbidity of coronary artery disease, due to the alleviation of cardiac pain, for at least 3 years. In addition, there is some evidence that mortality for symptomatic patients with significant left main-stem coronary artery stenosis may be reduced by coronary artery bypass surgery. A significant effect on mortaliy form other forms of coronary artery disease has not yet been conclusively demonstrated but also has not been excluded. Most of the reports are preliminary and involve small numbers of patients followed for relatively short periods. The operation is still being improved. It is to be hoped that the randomized trials, involving large numbers of patients, now in progress will supply some of these answers.Aortocoronary bypass surgery is the treatment of choice for patients with stable cardiac pain that is disabling despite adequate treatment, or when adequate treatment is impractial; for patients with unstable cardiac pain, uncontrolled despite adequate treatment; and for symptomatic patients with critical stenosis of the left main-stem coronary artery.     

Abdominal Bruit after Renal Transplantation

Forty-seven recipients of renal allografts have been studied at varying intervals of up to five years after transplantation. Renal artery bruit occurred in eight of 16 patients observed over the first two post-transplant months and disappeared spontaneously in four of these. The disappearance of the bruit was associated with poor renal function. Renal bruits were audible in 10 patients examined more than two months after transplantation; nine of these were hypertensive and of six in whom arteriography was performed five were shown to have stenosis of the allograft artery. By contrast only eight of 37 patients without abdominal bruit were hypertensive, and arteriography in 10 normotensive patients without bruit showed no stenosis. It is concluded that while a renal artery bruit during the first two months after transplantation may be a marker of good renal blood flow at the time, its presence suggests a poor long-term prognosis since persistence of the murmur indicates that significant stenosis of the allograft artery is likely, while its disappearance is associated with poor renal function.     

SPECT 对症状性颅内动脉狭窄支架成形术的疗效评价

目的:通过SPECT脑血流灌注显像,对症状性颅内动脉粥样硬化性狭窄行颅内支架成形术,进行血流动力学的疗效评价。方法:对42例症状性颅内动脉粥样硬化性狭窄(狭窄程度>50%)患者,术前通过SPECT,分为低灌注组和正常灌注组。术后3月复查SPECT,做出血流动力学的疗效评价。通过术前及术后1年mRS评分,比较两组的远期疗效。结果:低灌注组发病症状一般为缺血性卒中,正常灌注组一般为TIA(P<0.01)。低灌注组术后血流灌注较术前改善明显(P<0.01)。正常灌注组复发性TIA的发生率较低灌注组高(P<0.05)。低灌注组术前术后mRS评分有统计学差异(P<0.05)。结论:颅内支架成形术可以明确改善颅内低灌注区的血流灌注,对低灌注组术后缺血事件的预防效果好,并有改善神经功能作用。因此,存在颅内低灌注区的患者更具有颅内支架成形术的手术适应症。     

Subclavian artery stenting: Immediate and mid term clinical follow-up results

BACKGROUND: Intravascular stents are increasingly being used to treat subclavian artery obstructive disease. This study aimed to assess the immediate and mid-term clinical outcome of subclavian artery stenting. METHODS AND RESULTS: Total occlusion of the subclavian artery was seen in 7 (28%) out of the 25 consecutive patients treated for subclavican artery stenosis. Mean lesion length was 14 +/- 4.3 mm. The mean preprocedure diameter stenosis was reduced from 83.2 +/- 14.9% to 9.6 +/- 5.4% postprocedure. Procedural success was achieved in all patients. Clinical follow-up was obtained in all patients. The initial success was maintained at follow-up (mean = 12 +/- 4 months) in 24 (96%) patients. Recurrence of symptoms occurred in 1 (4%) patient who had an angiographically documented restenosis four months after the procedure. It was successfully redilated. CONCLUSION: Stenting for subclavian artery obstructive disease is safe, technically feasible and has favorable clinical outcomes. It may be considered as the therapy of choice for subclavian artery obstructive disease.     

The Diagnosis of Mitral Stenosis

The diagnosis of classical mitral stenosis is easy, but many pitfalls lead to over-diagnosis or under-diagnosis. These have been considered in detail and variations in symptoms and signs have been illustrated by case histories. Such variations include: (1) Embolism producing the Leriche syndrome; (2) mitral stenosis with insignificant hemodynamic effect; (3) myxoma masquerading as mitral stenosis; (4) mitral stenosis without apical murmurs, and (5) mitral stenosis with a systolic murmur predominant or alone. In cases of combined mitral and aortic stenosis, the history, radiographic configuration, and incidence of hemoptysis, edema, bronchitis, embolism and atrial fibrillation resemble such findings in cases of isolated mitral stenosis, but the auscultatory signs of the latter may be obscured. The degree of aortic stenosis is difficult to determine in cases of combined stenosis. In the diagnosis of re-stenosis the condition of the valve at the first commissurotomy, the precise procedure performed and the degree of regurgitation produced are of prime importance. Congenital mitral stenosis is rare and is associated with a high incidence of other defects.