The Photoprotective Role of Spermidine in Tomato Seedlings under Salinity-Alkalinity Stress

Polyamines are small, ubiquitous, nitrogenous compounds that scavenge reactive oxygen species and stabilize the structure and function of the photosynthetic apparatus in response to abiotic stresses. Molecular details underlying polyamine-mediated photoprotective mechanisms are not completely resolved. This study investigated the role of spermidine (Spd) in the structure and function of the photosynthetic apparatus. Tomato seedlings were subjected to salinity-alkalinity stress with and without foliar application of Spd, and photosynthetic and morphological parameters were analyzed. Leaf dry weight and net photosynthetic rate were reduced by salinity-alkalinity stress. Salinity-alkalinity stress reduced photochemical quenching parameters, including maximum photochemistry efficiency of photosystem II, quantum yield of linear electron flux, and coefficient of photochemical quenching (qP). Salinity-alkalinity stress elevated nonphotochemical quenching parameters, including the de-epoxidation state of the xanthophyll cycle and nonphotochemical quenching (NPQ). Microscopic analysis revealed that salinity-alkalinity stress disrupted the internal lamellar system of granal and stromal thylakoids. Exogenous Spd alleviated the stress-induced reduction of leaf dry weight, net photosynthetic rate, and qP parameters. The NPQ parameters increased by salinity-alkalinity stress were also alleviated by Spd. Seedlings treated with exogenous Spd had higher zeaxanthin (Z) contents than those without Spd under salinity-alkalinity stress. The chloroplast ultrastructure had a more ordered arrangement in seedlings treated with exogenous Spd than in those without Spd under salinity-alkalinity stress. These results indicate that exogenous Spd can alleviate the growth inhibition and thylakoid membrane photodamage caused by salinity-alkalinity stress. The Spd-induced accumulation of Z also may have an important role in stabilizing the photosynthetic apparatus.     

Selenium Promotes the Growth and Photosynthesis of Tomato Seedlings Under Salt Stress by Enhancing Chloroplast Antioxidant Defense System

Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Miller) cv. Jiahe No. 9 (a salinity-resistant cultivar) and cv. Shuangfeng 87-5 (a salinity-sensitive cultivar) were used as experimental materials to investigate the effects of exogenous selenium (Na₂SeO₃ 0.05 mM) on plant growth, chlorophyll fluorescence, photosynthetic rate, and antioxidative metabolism of chloroplasts in tomato seedlings under NaCl (100 mM) stress. Salt stress significantly inhibited plant growth, net photosynthetic rate (P _n), maximum quantum yield of PSII (F _v/F _m), actual photochemical efficiency of PSII (Φ _PSII), photochemical quenching coefficient (q _P), and non-photochemical quenching coefficient (q _N) of both cultivars, whereas application of Se reversed the negative effects of salt stress. Furthermore, application of Se significantly decreased the levels of hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) and malondialdehyde. Application of Se increased the activities of superoxidase dismutase, glutathione reductase, dehydroascorbate reductase, monodehydroascorbate reductase, glutathione peroxidase, and thioredoxin reductase, and the contents of ascorbate, glutathione (GSH) and NADPH, and the ratios of GSH/GSSH, AsA/DHA, and NADPH/ NADP⁺ in the salt-stressed chloroplasts of both cultivars. These results suggest that Se alleviates salt-induced oxidative stress through regulating the antioxidant defense systems in the chloroplasts of tomato seedlings, which is associated with the improvement of the photochemical efficiency of PSII, thereby maintaining higher photosynthetic rates. In addition, the salt tolerance of Jiahe No. 9 is closely related with high reactive oxygen species scavenging activity and reducing power levels in the chloroplasts.     

植物光合系统对高温胁迫的响应机制

温度变化是影响植物生长和发育的一个非常重要的因素,而光合作用是植物对温度变化最为敏感的生理过程.高温胁迫给植物光合器官造成了严重的危害,但在高温胁迫下,植物并不是消极被动的,并且能够在生理生化及分子水平上发生各种变化来渡过逆境.本文结合当今国内外研究进展,从光合系统热量耗散与光合修复的相关因素,如类囊体膜上相关蛋白,热激蛋白,水杨酸,抗过氧化物酶及抗坏血酸等几个方面展开分析,阐述了植物光合系统对高温胁迫的防御机制,并对今后的研究方向进行了探讨和展望.     

Signal Molecules for Plant Defense Responses to Biotic Stress

Plants are capable of recognizing the penetrating pathogens and of responding to their attack by the activation of the defense systems. Signal transduction from the receptor to the cell genome is required for this activation. Recently, signal molecules have been found, which are involved in the signal transduction triggered in response to biotic stress. The data accumulated imply the presence of a complex and well-coordinated signal network in plant cells. This net controls plant defense responses to pathogen attacks.     

Sulindac Enhances the Killing of Cancer Cells Exposed to Oxidative Stress

Background

Sulindac is an FDA-approved non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) that affects prostaglandin production by inhibiting cyclooxygenases (COX) 1 and 2. Sulindac has also been of interest for more than decade as a chemopreventive for adenomatous colorectal polyps and colon cancer.

Principal Findings

Pretreatment of human colon and lung cancer cells with sulindac enhances killing by an oxidizing agent such as tert-butyl hydroperoxide (TBHP) or hydrogen peroxide. This effect does not involve cyclooxygenase (COX) inhibition. However, under the conditions used, there is a significant increase in reactive oxygen species (ROS) within the cancer cells and a loss of mitochondrial membrane potential, suggesting that cell death is due to apoptosis, which was confirmed by Tunel assay. In contrast, this enhanced killing was not observed with normal lung or colon cells.

Significance

These results indicate that normal and cancer cells handle oxidative stress in different ways and sulindac can enhance this difference. The combination of sulindac and an oxidizing agent could have therapeutic value.     

Overexpression of S-Adenosylmethionine Synthetase Enhances Tolerance to Cold Stress in Tobacco

Russian Journal of Plant Physiology - Cold stress affects plant growth and crop productivity. Consequently, there is considerable interest in plant genes that respond to cold stress as these might...     

Human Milk Hyaluronan Enhances Innate Defense of the Intestinal Epithelium

Breast-feeding is associated with enhanced protection from gastrointestinal disease in infants, mediated in part by an array of bioactive glycan components in milk that act through molecular mechanisms to inhibit enteric pathogen infection. Human milk contains hyaluronan (HA), a glycosaminoglycan polymer found in virtually all mammalian tissues. We have shown that synthetic HA of a specific size range promotes expression of antimicrobial peptides in intestinal epithelium. We hypothesize that hyaluronan from human milk also enhances innate antimicrobial defense. Here we define the concentration of HA in human milk during the first 6 months postpartum. Importantly, HA isolated from milk has a biological function. Treatment of HT-29 colonic epithelial cells with human milk HA at physiologic concentrations results in time- and dose-dependent induction of the antimicrobial peptide human β-defensin 2 and is abrogated by digestion of milk HA with a specific hyaluronidase. Milk HA induction of human β-defensin 2 expression is also reduced in the presence of a CD44-blocking antibody and is associated with a specific increase in ERK1/2 phosphorylation, suggesting a role for the HA receptor CD44. Furthermore, oral administration of human milk-derived HA to adult, wild-type mice results in induction of the murine Hβ D2 ortholog in intestinal mucosa and is dependent upon both TLR4 and CD44 in vivo. Finally, treatment of cultured colonic epithelial cells with human milk HA enhances resistance to infection by the enteric pathogen Salmonella typhimurium. Together, our observations suggest that maternally provided HA stimulates protective antimicrobial defense in the newborn.     

Reducing the Activity and Secretion of Microbial Antioxidants Enhances the Immunogenicity of BCG

Background

In early clinical studies, the live tuberculosis vaccine Mycobacterium bovis BCG exhibited 80% protective efficacy against pulmonary tuberculosis (TB). Although BCG still exhibits reliable protection against TB meningitis and miliary TB in early childhood it has become less reliable in protecting against pulmonary TB. During decades of in vitro cultivation BCG not only lost some genes due to deletions of regions of the chromosome but also underwent gene duplication and other mutations resulting in increased antioxidant production.

Methodology/Principal Findings

To determine whether microbial antioxidants influence vaccine immunogenicity, we eliminated duplicated alleles encoding the oxidative stress sigma factor SigH in BCG Tice and reduced the activity and secretion of iron co-factored superoxide dismutase. We then used assays of gene expression and flow cytometry with intracellular cytokine staining to compare BCG-specific immune responses in mice after vaccination with BCG Tice or the modified BCG vaccine. Compared to BCG, the modified vaccine induced greater IL-12p40, RANTES, and IL-21 mRNA in the spleens of mice at three days post-immunization, more cytokine-producing CD8+ lymphocytes at the peak of the primary immune response, and more IL-2-producing CD4+ lymphocytes during the memory phase. The modified vaccine also induced stronger secondary CD4+ lymphocyte responses and greater clearance of challenge bacilli.

Conclusions/Significance

We conclude that antioxidants produced by BCG suppress host immune responses. These findings challenge the hypothesis that the failure of extensively cultivated BCG vaccines to prevent pulmonary tuberculosis is due to over-attenuation and suggest instead a new model in which BCG evolved to produce more immunity-suppressing antioxidants. By targeting these antioxidants it may be possible to restore BCG''s ability to protect against pulmonary TB.     

Antisense-Mediated Depletion of Tomato Chloroplast Omega-3 Fatty Acid Desaturase Enhances Thermal Tolerance

A chloroplast-localized tomato （Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.） ω-3 fatty acid desaturase gene （LeFADT） was isolated and characterized with regard to its sequence, response to various temperatures, and function in antisense transgenic tomato plants. The deduced amino acid sequence had four histidine-rich regions, of which three regions were highly conserved throughout the whole ω-3 fatty acid desaturasegene family. Southern blotting analysis showed that LeFAD7was encoded by a single copy gene and had two homologous genes in the tomato genome. Northern blot showed that LeFAD7 was expressed in all organs and was especially abundant in leaf tissue. Meanwhile, expression of LeFAD7 was induced by chilling stress （4 ℃）, but was inhibited by high temperature （45 ℃）, in leaves. Transgenic tomato plants were produced by integration of the antisense LeFAD7DNA under the control of a CaMV35S promoter into the genome. Antisense transgenic plants with lower 18 ： 3 content could maintain a higher maximal photochemical efficiency （Fv/Fm） and O2 evolution rate than wild-type plants. These results suggested that silence of the LeFAD7 gene alleviated high-temperature stress. There was also a correlation between the low content of 18 ： 3 resulting from silence of the LeFAD7 gene and tolerance to high-temperature stress.     

Polyamine Accumulation in Transgenic Tomato Enhances the Tolerance to High Temperature Stress

Polyamines play an important role in plant response to abiotic stress. S-adenosyl-I-methionine decarboxylase (SAMDC) is one of the key regulatory enzymes in the biosynthesis of polyamines. In order to better understand the effect of regulation of polyamine biosynthesis on the tolerance of high-temperature stress in tomato, SAMDC Cdna isolated from Saccharomyces cerevisiae was introduced into tomato genome by means of Agrobacterium tumefaciens through leaf disc transformation. Transgene and expression was confirmed by Southern and Northern blot analyses, respectively. Transgenic plants expressing yeast SAMDC produced 1.7- to 2.4-fold higher levels of spermidine and spermine than wild-type plants under high temperature stress, and enhanced antioxidant enzyme activity and the protection of membrane lipid peroxidation was also observed. This subsequently improved the efficiency of CO2 assimilation and protected the plants from high temperature stress, which indicated that the transgenic tomato presented an enhanced tolerance to high temperature stress (38℃) compared with wild-type plants, Our results demonstrated clearly that increasing polyamine biosynthesis in plants may be a means of creating high temperature-tolerant germplasm.     

Overexpression of Multiple Dehydrin Genes Enhances Tolerance to Freezing Stress in Arabidopsis

To elucidate the contribution of dehydrins (DHNs) to freezing stress tolerance in Arabidopsis, transgenic plants overexpressing multiple DHN genes were generated. Chimeric double constructs for expression of RAB18 and COR47 (pTP9) or LTI29 and LTI30 (pTP10) were made by fusing the coding sequences of the respective DHN genes to the cauliflower mosaic virus 35S promoter. Overexpression of the chimeric genes in Arabidopsis resulted in accumulation of the corresponding dehydrins to levels similar or higher than in cold-acclimated wild-type plants. Transgenic plants exhibited lower LT50 values and improved survival when exposed to freezing stress compared to the control plants. Post-embedding immuno electron microscopy of high-pressure frozen, freeze-substituted samples revealed partial intracellular translocation from cytosol to the vicinity of the membranes of the acidic dehydrin LTI29 during cold acclimation in transgenic plants. This study provides evidence that dehydrins contribute to freezing stress tolerance in plants and suggests that this could be partly due to their protective effect on membranes.     

Gamma Aminobutyric Acid (GABA) and Plant Responses to Stress

4-aminobutyrate (GABA) is a non-protein amino acid that is widely distributed throughout the biological world. In animals, GABA functions as the predominant inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system by acting through the GABA receptors. The neuromuscular system enables animals to escape from environmental stresses. Being nonmotile, plants have evolved chemical responses to mitigate stress. Mechanisms by which GABA may facilitate these responses are discussed in this review. Environmental stresses increase GABA accumulation through two different mechanisms. Stresses causing metabolic and/or mechanical disruptions, resulting in cytosolic acidification, induce an acidic pH-dependent activation of glutamate decarboxylase and GABA synthesis. Extremely marked declines in cytosolic pH occur under oxygen deprivation, which is the primary stress factor in flooded soils, and this stress induces the greatest accumulation of GABA. Other stresses, including cold, heat, salt, and mild or transient environmental factors, such as touch, wind, rain, etc. rapidly increase cellular levels of Ca²⁺. Increased cytosolic Ca²⁺ stimulates calmodulin-dependent glutamate decarboxylase activity and GABA synthesis. A review of the kinetics of GABA accumulation in plants reveals a stress-specific pattern of accumulation that is consistent with a physiological role for GABA in stress mitigation. Recent physiological and genetic evidence indicates that plants may possess GAB A-like receptors that have features in common with the animal receptors. The mechanism of action of animal GABA receptors suggests a model for rapid amplification of ion-mediated signals and GABA accumulation in response to stress. Metabolic pathways that link GABA to stress-related metabolism and plant hormones are identified. The survival value of stress-related metabolism is dependent on metabolic changes occurring before stress causes irreversible damage to plant tissue. Rapid accumulation of GABA in stressed tissue may provide a critical link in the chain of events leading from perception of environmental stresses to timely physiological responses.     

Emmental Cheese Environment Enhances Propionibacterium freudenreichii Stress Tolerance

Dairy propionibacteria are actinomycetales found in various fermented food products. The main species, Propionibacterium freudenreichii, is generally recognized as safe and used both as probiotic and as cheese starter. Its probiotic efficacy tightly depends on its tolerance towards digestive stresses, which can be largely modulated by the ingested delivery vehicle. Indeed, tolerance of this bacterium is enhanced when it is consumed within a fermented dairy product, compared to a dried probiotic preparation. We investigated both stress tolerance and protein neosynthesis upon growth in i) chemically defined or ii) aqueous phase of Emmental cheeses. Although the same final population level was reached in both media, a slower growth and an enhanced survival of CIRM BIA 1 strain of P. freudenreichii subsp. shermanii was observed in Emmental juice, compared to chemically defined medium. This was accompanied by differences in substrates used and products released as well as overexpression of various early stress adaptation proteins in Emmental juice, compared to chemically defined medium, implied in protein folding, in aspartate catabolism, in biosynthesis of valine, leucine and isoleucine, in pyruvate metabolism in citrate cycle, in the propionate metabolism, as well as in oxidoreductases. All these changes led to a higher digestive stress tolerance after growth in Emmental juice. Mechanisms of stress adaptation were induced in this environment, in accordance with enhanced survival. This opens perspectives for the use of hard and semi-hard cheeses as delivery vehicle for probiotics with enhanced efficacy.     

Water Stress Enhances Ethylene-mediated Leaf Abscission in Cotton

Abscission of cotyledonary leaves from cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L. cv. Stoneville 213) seedlings occurred following relief from water stress. The amount of abscission was related to the magnitude of the plant water deficit. Leaf abscission promoted by exogenous ethylene was enhanced in seedlings subjected to water stress. Treatment with ethylene (2.0 to 3.2 microliters of ethylene per liter of air for 24 hours) raised the threshold plant water potential required to induce abscission from —17 to —7 bar, indicating that the stress caused the tissue to become predisposed to ethylene action. Based on the abscission response curve for seedlings treated with ethylene while under water stress, this apparent predisposition was developed as the plant water potentials reached the —7 to —10 bar range. The abscission-promoting effects of ethylene in combination with water stress were reversed with 15% CO₂ at plant water potentials above —12 bar, but the CO₂ reversal was lost at lower water potentials. These results are compatible with the concept that ethylene plays a regulatory role in leaf abscission induced by water stress.     

Oxidative Stress Induced by Lead in Chloroplast of Spinach

Seedlings of spinach were grown in Hoagland's medium containing 0, 20, 40, 60, 80, 100 microM PbCl2, respectively, for 4 weeks. Chloroplasts were assayed for overproduction of reactive oxygen species (ROS) such as superoxide radicals (O2(*-)) and hydrogen peoxide (H2O2) and of lipid peroxide (malonyldialdehyde) and for activities of the antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide dismutase, catalase, ascorbate peroxidase, and guaiacol peroxidase and glutathione content, oxygen-evolving rate, and chlorophyll content. Increase in both ROS and lipid peroxide content and reduction in photosynthesis and activities of the antioxidant defense system indicated that spinach chloroplast underwent a stress condition due to an oxidative attack. Seedling growth cultivated in containing Pb2+ media was significantly inhibited. The results imply that spinach chloroplast was not able to tolerate the oxidative stress induced by Pb2+ due to having no effective antioxidant defense mechanism.     

根际低氧胁迫对网纹甜瓜幼苗植株碳水化合物含量的影响

以耐低氧性明显不同的2个网纹甜瓜品种为试材,研究了低氧胁迫下植株体内碳水化合物含量的变化特征,探讨植株体内碳水化合物含量与低氧耐性之间的关系。结果表明,低氧胁迫下网纹甜瓜根系淀粉含量下降,而茎部和叶片中有淀粉积累的现象,且在耐低氧性强的‘东方星光’叶片中淀粉积累更明显;低氧胁迫下网纹甜瓜体内可溶性糖、蔗糖、果糖含量增加,且在茎部和叶片中增加幅度较大,并以耐低氧性强的‘东方星光’中增加更明显;低氧胁迫下网纹甜瓜根系葡萄糖含量降低且低于通气对照,茎部和叶片中葡萄糖含量先增加后降低,在处理8d后低于通气对照。研究发现,网纹甜瓜体内碳水化合物含量与植株的耐低氧性密切相关;耐低氧性强的品种体内可溶性糖、蔗糖、果糖含量在低氧胁迫下比耐低氧性弱的品种更高,增幅更大;体内较高的可溶性糖、蔗糖和果糖含量是植株对低氧胁迫的一种适应性反应。     

GABA Enhances Thermotolerance of Seeds Germination by Attenuating the ROS Damage in Arabidopsis

Seeds germination is strictly controlled by environment factor such ashigh temperature (HT) through altering the balance between gibberellin acid (GA)and abscisic acid (ABA). Gama-aminobutyric acid (GABA) is a small moleculewith four-carbon amino acid, which plays a crucial role during plant physiologicalprocess associated with pollination, wounding or abiotic stress, but its role inseeds germination under HT remains elusive. In this study we found that HTinduced the overaccumulation of ROS, mainly H₂O₂ and O₂^-, to suppress seedsgermination, meanwhile, HT also activated the enzyme activity of GAD for therapid accumulation of GABA, hinting the regulatory function of GABA in controlling seeds germination against HT stress. Applying GABA directly attenuatedHT-induced ROS accumulation, upregulated GA biosynthesis and downregulatedABA biosynthesis, ultimately enhanced seeds germination. Consistently, geneticanalysis using the gad1/2 mutant defective in GABA biosynthesis, or pop2-5mutant with high endogenous GABA content supported the potential functionof GABA in improving seeds germination tolerance to HT through scavengingROS overaccumulation. Based on these data, we propose that GABA acts as anovel signal to enhance thermotolerance of seeds germination through alleviatingthe ROS damage to seeds viability.     

Quorum Sensing Enhances the Stress Response in Vibrio cholerae

Vibrio cholerae lives in aquatic environments and causes cholera. Here, we show that quorum sensing enhances V. cholerae viability under certain stress conditions by upregulating the expression of RpoS, and this regulation acts through HapR, suggesting that a quorum-sensing-enhanced stress response plays a role in V. cholerae environmental survival.     

Root Defense in Salicylic Acid-Altering Arabidopsis Plants in Responses to Cadmium Stress

Journal of Plant Growth Regulation - The regulatory role of salicylic acid (SA) has been extensively reported in plants subjected to cadmium (Cd) stress. However, the underlying mechanisms still...