Why do male snakes have longer tails than females?

In most snake species, males have longer tails than females of the same body length. The adaptive significance of this widespread dimorphism has attracted much speculation, but few tests. We took advantage of huge mating aggregations of red-sided gartersnakes (Thamnophis sirtalis parietalis) in southern Manitoba to test two (non-exclusive) hypotheses about the selective forces responsible for this dimorphism. Our data support both hypotheses. First, relative tail length affects the size of the male copulatory organs (hemipenes). Males with longer tails relative to body length have longer hemipenes, presumably because of the additional space available (the hemipenes are housed inside the tail base). Second, relative tail length affects male mating success. Males with partial tail loss (due to predation or misadventure) experienced a threefold reduction in mating success. Among males with intact tails, we detected strong stabilizing selection on relative tail length in one of the two years of our study. Thus, our data support the notion that sex divergence in tail length relative to body length in snakes reflects the action of sexual selection for male mating success.     

Why do songbirds sing intensively at dawn?

Among the ideas proposed to explain the existence of the dawn chorus in songbirds, the acoustic transmission hypothesis claims that birds sing most intensively at dawn because this is the time of the day when songs suffer least from environmentally induced degradation and hence propagate over the longest distances. In this article, we report on the first sound transmission experiment that directly tests this assumption using natural song from a typically forest-living dawn chorusing bird, the blackcap Sylvia atricapilla. Representative sound elements from the introductory twitter part and from the terminating motif part of the blackcap song were transmitted and re-recorded at three different times of the day: dawn, midmorning, and early afternoon. These recordings were then compared with respect to the following measures of sound degradation: signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), excess attenuation, blurring over song elements, and elongation of song elements by tails of echoes. As could be expected, both the background noise and the SNR varied considerably over the day. More surprisingly the excess attenuation decreased during the day, being lowest in the afternoon. There was no diurnal variation in blurring and elongation by echoes. The results may be explained by the diurnal variation in physical parameters such as temperature, relative humidity, and wind speed. The implications of this for different communication activities are discussed. Overall, the results show that dawn conditions in a temperate deciduous forest do not always constitute the best circumstances for long-range communication and therefore that the dawn chorus cannot be explained by the sound transmission hypothesis. Received in revised form: 24 September 2001 Electronic Publication     

Why do flowers close at night? Experiments with the Lesser celandine Ficaria verna Huds (Ranunculaceae)

Although the mechanisms of flower closure have been widely studied, the evolutionary processes underlying this phenomenon are largely unknown. Open flowers may face a trade‐off between successful pollination/pollen transfer on the one hand and destruction of reproductive organs caused by exogenous factors (e.g. rain) on the other. The cost of flower opening was investigated by treating flowers of the Lesser celandine both in the field and under laboratory conditions. No differences were found in anthesis and reproductive success between treated and untreated flowers in any of the experiments. However, treated flowers in the field experiment suffered from significantly higher predation rates, in all probability caused by slugs and roe deer. It is suggested that flower closure may decrease the rate of being eaten by some herbivores, particularly in early‐spring plants that flower at times of insufficient food availability.     

Why do animals hybridize?

Animal hybridization is increasingly recognized as common and evolutionarily important, but the role of behavior in promoting hybridization events is not well understood. Understanding the behavioral causes of hybridization requires understanding the ecological, demographic, and phenotypic influences on mate choice in hybridizing taxa. Here, I review how these influences on mate choice can contribute to hybridization by (1) circumventing (female) choice, (2) bringing formerly isolated species into sympatry, (3) masking cues important for mate recognition, (4) altering the traits or preferences involved in mate recognition, or (5) altering the costs and benefits of mate choice. In particular, hybridization in response to either high direct costs of mate choice or high direct benefits of heterospecific mating may be widespread, a possibility that awaits further testing. Adopting a mate choice perspective to the study of hybridization challenges the assumption of hybrids as reproductive “mistakes” and allows for functional explanations regarding the occurrence and maintenance of hybridization. As evidence of the prevalence and evolutionary importance of animal hybridization accumulates, investigations into the role of behavior will be increasingly important for our understanding of diversification and for conservation applications.     

Why do plants silicify?

Despite seminal papers that stress the significance of silicon (Si) in plant biology and ecology, most studies focus on manipulations of Si supply and mitigation of stresses. The ecological significance of Si varies with different levels of biological organization, and remains hard to capture. We show that the costs of Si accumulation are greater than is currently acknowledged, and discuss potential links between Si and fitness components (growth, survival, reproduction), environment, and ecosystem functioning. We suggest that Si is more important in trait-based ecology than is currently recognized. Si potentially plays a significant role in many aspects of plant ecology, but knowledge gaps prevent us from understanding its possible contribution to the success of some clades and the expansion of specific biomes.     

Why do fish school?

Synchronized movements (schooling) emit complex and overlapping sound and pressure curves that might confuse the inner ear and lateral line organ (LLO) of a predator.Moreover,prey-fish moving close to each other may blur the electro-sensory perception of predators.The aim of this review is to explore mechanisms associated with synchronous swimming that may have contributed to increased adaptation and as a consequence may have influenced the evolution of schooling.The evolutionary development of the inner ear and the LLO increased the capacity to detect potential prey,possibly leading to an increased potential for cannibalism in the shoal,but also helped small fish to avoid joining larger fish,resulting in size homogeneity and,accordingly,an increased capacity for moving in synchrony.Water-movements and incidental sound produced as by-product of locomotion (ISOL) may provide fish with potentially useful information during swimming,such as neighbour body-size,speed,and location.When many fish move close to one another ISOL will be energetic and complex.Quiet intervals will be few.Fish moving in synchrony will have the capacity to discontinue movements simultaneously,providing relatively quiet intervals to allow the reception of potentially critical environmental signals.Besides,synchronized movements may facilitate auditory grouping of ISOL.Turning preference bias,well-functioning sense organs,good health,and skillful motor performance might be important to achieving an appropriate distance to school neighbors und aid the individual fish in reducing time spent in the comparatively less safe school periphery.Turning preferences in ancestral fish shoals might have helped fish to maintain groups and stay in formarion,reinforcing aforementioned predator confusion mechanisms,which possibly played a role in the lateralization of the vertebrate brain [Current Zoology 58 (1):116-128,2012].     

The transvestite serpent: why do male garter snakes court (some) other males?

In large mating aggregations of red-sided garter snakes, Thamnophis sirtalis parietalis, in Manitoba, male courtship is directed not only to females, but also to other males with female-like skin lipids ('she-males'). We show that 'she-maleness' is an intrinsic property of a male rather than an artefact of lipid transfer from females, and that male-male courtship is very common in the field. She-males were distinctive in terms of appearance (they were heavier than other males and more often covered with mud), behaviour (they were inactive and rarely courted females) and performance (they were slow crawlers, ineffective courters and easily outcompeted by other males in mating trials). 'She-maleness' was not a characteristic of a particular subset of males, as envisaged in previous work; instead, it was a transitory phase that most (perhaps all) male snakes passed through soon after they first emerged from the winter den. Recently emerged males spent their first day or two relatively inactive, while restoring physiological functions (including locomotor performance and courtship ability). Experimental application of female skin lipids on to males dramatically decreased courtship levels of the recipient snakes. Thus, recently emerged males may derive two kinds of benefit from mimicking female skin lipids. First, female mimicry 'switches off' the male's own (energetically expensive) courtship at a time when that courtship would be unproductive. Second, it may disadvantage his rivals by distracting them from females, and increasing their energy expenditure. Copyright 2000 The Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour.     

Why do captive tufted capuchins (Cebus apella) urine wash?

Urine washing (UW) has been observed in numerous species of prosimians and New World monkeys. The functional significance of UW in Cebidae, specifically, Cebus apella, has not been determined. The objective of our study was to test two major hypotheses related to the function of UW: (1) UW functions as a thermoregulatory mechanism, and (2) UW functions as a means of social communication related to (a) territoriality, (b) sexual encounters, or (c) intragroup aggression/agitation. We collected focal data on a captive group of 28 tufted capuchins (C. apella; July-October 2004 and February-July 2005). We found no significant correlation between UW rates and temperature, at a constant, moderate humidity level. Rates of UW were significantly greater outdoors (no conspecific neighbors) vs. indoors (conspecific neighbors). Qualitative evidence suggests a relationship between UW by the alpha male and sexual solicitations from females. UW rates associated with aggression received were significantly higher than UW rates associated with aggression given and UW rates associated with potential fear/stress. There was also a significant negative correlation between cortisol measures and UW frequencies. Our results suggest that UW does not function in thermoregulation or in territorial communication. Alternatively, our results suggest that UW may be associated with sexual encounters and receiving aggression. Additionally, further investigation is warranted to determine whether UW is used as an appeasement mechanism or as a stress reliever or as both.     

Why do fish have so few roundworm (nematode) parasites?

Synopsis Although they are the oldest and most diverse members of the subphylum, the fishes have relatively few nematode parasites in comparison with other vertebrate classes. It is hypothesized that this paucity of parasite species has occurred because nematode parasites first evolved in terrestrial hosts and only a few lines of these parasites were able to transfer to fish after the appearance of heteroxeny (use of intermediate hosts) and paratenesis (use of transport hosts). The inability of nematodes to initiate parasitism in aquatic ecosystems restricted fish parasites mainly to forms first adapted to terrestrial vertebrates and at the same time deprived large groups of aquatic invertebrates such as the crustaceans, annelids and molluscs of a nematode parasite fauna.Invited editorial     

Does urbanization ameliorate the effect of endoparasite infection in kangaroo rats?

Urban development can fragment and degrade remnant habitat. Such habitat alterations can have profound impacts on wildlife, including effects on population density, parasite infection status, parasite prevalence, and body condition. We investigated the influence of urbanization on populations of Merriam''s kangaroo rat (Dipodomys merriami) and their parasites. We predicted that urban development would lead to reduced abundance, increased parasite prevalence in urban populations, increased probability of parasite infection for individual animals, and decreased body condition of kangaroo rats in urban versus wildland areas. We live trapped kangaroo rats at 5 urban and 5 wildland sites in and around Las Cruces, NM, USA from 2013 to 2015, collected fecal samples from 209 kangaroo rats, and detected endoparasites using fecal flotation and molecular barcoding. Seven parasite species were detected, although only two parasitic worms, Mastophorus dipodomis and Pterygodermatites dipodomis, occurred frequently enough to allow for statistical analysis. We found no effects of urbanization on population density or probability of parasite infection. However, wildland animals infected with P. dipodomis had lower body condition scores than infected animals in urban areas or uninfected animals in either habitat. Our results suggest that urban environments may buffer Merriam''s kangaroo rats from the detrimental impacts to body condition that P. dipodomis infections can cause.     

Why do worms need cholesterol?

Cholesterol is a structural component of animal membranes that influences fluidity, permeability and formation of lipid microdomains. It is also a precursor to signalling molecules, including mammalian steroid hormones and insect ecdysones. The nematode Caenorhabditis elegans requires too little cholesterol for it to have a major role in membrane structure. Instead, its most probable signalling functions are to control molting and induce a specialized non-feeding larval stage, although no cholesterol-derived signalling molecule has yet been identified for these or any other functions.     

Why do microorganisms produce rhamnolipids?

We review the environmental role of rhamnolipids in terms of microbial life and activity. A large number of previous research supports the idea that these glycolipids mediate the uptake of hydrophobic substrates by bacterial cells. This feature might be of highest priority for bioremediation of spilled hydrocarbons. However, current evidence confirms that rhamnolipids primarily play a role in surface-associated modes of bacterial motility and are involved in biofilm development. This might be an explanation why no direct pattern of hydrocarbon degradation was often observed after rhamnolipids supplementation. This review gives insight into the current state of knowledge on how rhamnolipids operate in the microbial world.     

Why do RNA viruses recombine?

Recombination occurs in many RNA viruses and can be of major evolutionary significance. However, rates of recombination vary dramatically among RNA viruses, which can range from clonal to highly recombinogenic. Here, we review the factors that might explain this variation in recombination frequency and show that there is little evidence that recombination is favoured by natural selection to create advantageous genotypes or purge deleterious mutations, as predicted if recombination functions as a form of sexual reproduction. Rather, recombination rates seemingly reflect larger-scale patterns of viral genome organization, such that recombination may be a mechanistic by-product of the evolutionary pressures acting on other aspects of virus biology.     

Why do lizards avoid weeds?

Invasion of native habitats by exotic plants often causes reductions in faunal diversity. However, there is little direct evidence of native fauna actively avoiding invaded habitat and few quantitative studies on the mechanisms underlying such avoidance. We quantified alterations made to the composition and physical structure of an Australian tropical savanna by grader grass (Themeda quadrivalvis); an understudied invasive grass that is associated with reduced faunal abundance and diversity. We found that grader grass profoundly changed the physical structure and floral composition of tropical savanna, forming dense lawn-like monocultures unlike the native savanna. Second, we investigated the habitat preferences of small ectotherms in partially invaded habitat, using a rainbow skink (Carlia schmeltzii) as a model system and discovered that they actively avoided grader grass. Finally, we experimentally tested predictions regarding mechanisms that may have driven the avoidance of grader grass. Predation rates and food availability were not likely the cause of grader grass avoidance, because experiments using models deployed in the field showed that predation rates were higher in native grass, and collection of invertebrates in both habitats indicated that prey availability was similar. However, mesocosm experiments on habitat selection in relation to vegetation structure, along with field measures of available operative environmental temperatures, suggested that small ectotherms probably avoid grader-grass-invaded savanna due to a suboptimal thermal environment and lack of appropriate habitat structural heterogeneity.     

Why do microorganisms have aquaporins?

Aquaporins are channel proteins that enhance the permeability of cell membranes for water. They have been found in Bacteria, Archaea and Eukaryotes. However, their absence in many microorganisms suggests that aquaporins do not fulfill a broad role such as turgor regulation or osmoadaptation but, instead, fulfill a role that enables microorganisms to have specific lifestyles. The recent discovery that aquaporins enhance cellular tolerance against rapid freezing suggests that they have ecological relevance. We have identified several examples of large-scale freeze-thawing of microbes in nature and we also draw attention to alternative lifestyle-related functions for aquaporins, which will be a focus of future research.     

Why do skin grafts fail?

Fibrin is shown to be the agent responsible for the adherence of biological dressings and of autografts to wounds. Its presence is associated with graft success, and its absence with graft failure. The results suggest that the deposition of fibrin provides the basis for the anti-bacterial actions of biological dressings and for the sterilization of the wound under adherent autografts. The total number of bacteria per gram of tissue in the wound, though important, is not critical to the result of skin grafting. The mechanism by which different organisms cause grafts to fail is by the production of plasmin and proteolytic enzymes which dissolve the important fibrin scaffold--thus ensuring their own survival. Thus, it is the levels of these (and the numbers of organisms efficient in producing them) which cause success or failure of applied skin grafts.     

Why do Californian striders fly?

Discerning the adaptive significance of migratory strategies poses significant challenges, not the least of which is measuring migratory capability in natural populations. We take advantage of a visible migratory dimorphism to study variation in migratory capability in the stream-dwelling water strider, Aquarius remigis. Theory predicts loss of migratory capability in this species because streams have been viewed as stable and persistent habitats. As expected, A. remigis lack wings throughout most of North America. However, Californian populations are noted for unexpectedly high frequencies of winged, migratory morphs. To deduce the adaptive significance of this anomalous regional variation, we compare proportion winged among 37 Californian populations. We discover a strong, positive correlation with altitude, but no correlations with latitude, rainfall or stream size. A common garden experiment reveals that both proportion winged and its reaction norm to temperature differ genetically among populations, and a half-sibling experiment demonstrates that wing morph has high heritability, moderate genetic correlations across environments and a significant genotype by environment interaction. These results support the hypothesis that proportion winged and its reaction norm to temperature have diverged genetically in California. We conclude that high migratory capability is an evolutionary adaptation to the unusual harshness and instability of Californian stream habitats, and particularly to the high elevational gradients and extreme seasonal variation characteristic of montane streams.