Seasonal patterns of nucleic acid concentrations and amino acid profiles of Parapenaeus longirostris (Crustacea, Decapoda): relation to growth and nutritional condition

The present work describes the seasonal changes in nucleic acid concentrations and amino acid profiles in the muscle of juvenile Parapenaeus longirostris and their relation to growth and nutritional condition. RNA content varied significantly between seasons, being the highest values attained in spring and the lowest in winter (p < 0.05). Similar results were obtained with RNA:protein and RNA:DNA ratios. In respect to total amino acid content (TAA), a significant increase from winter to spring was observed (p < 0.05) and the major essential amino acids (EAA) were arginine, histidine and leucine. Within non-essential amino acids (NEAA) glutamic acid, aspartic acid, glycine and proline were dominant. From winter to spring, a significant variation in NEAA content occurred (26.8; p < 0.05), mainly due to the significant increase of glutamic acid (79.1) and serine (66.7) (p < 0.05). EAA content did not vary significantly between seasons (p > 0.05). In opposition, during this period a significant decrease in the free amino acid content (FAA) was observed (p < 0.05); a higher percentage of decrease was attained in free non-essential (FNEAA – 42.9) in comparison to free essential amino acids (FEAA – 40.2). The significant increase in RNA and TAA contents from winter to spring may be related with protein synthesis. On the other hand, the lowest values obtained in winter may be due to a reduction in feeding activity; in this period the muscle protein must be progressively hydrolysed, which is evident with the higher FAA content. The liberated amino acids enter FAA pool and become available for energy production. In conclusion, it was evident that the seasonal cycle in activities such as feeding and growth with nucleic acids and amino acid analyses was noticed.     

Seasonal changes in energy allocation to somatic and reproductive body components of the common cold temperature sea urchin <Emphasis Type="Italic">Loxechinus albus</Emphasis> in a Sub-Antarctic environment

Monthly variations in the somatic indexes and energetic content of organs were investigated in Loxechinus albus from the Beagle Channel. Samples were collected monthly from May 2004 to May 2005. Lantern and test indexes did not vary significantly. A major peak of gonad index (GI) was observed in winter (sexual maturation period), with a strong declination in November suggesting a spawning period in spring. In coincidence a shortening of feeding activities was expressed by the lower values of gut index (Gut I), suggesting that the gut is a storage organ. The values of gonad energetic content (GEC) and total gonad energetic content (TGEC) showed minimum values in winter (ripe stage) and the maximum in spring (spawned stage). The TGEC reached higher monthly average values (50–200 kJ) than total gut energetic content (TGuEC) (20–40 kJ). These differences indicate that the gonads constitute the most important store organs in L. albus. Moreover, organic stores are built up in the gonads after spawning, and then utilized during gamete production.     

Winter Host Plant Specialization in a Host-Alternating Aphid

The host alternating aphid, Rhopalosiphum padi (L.), feeds in summer on several different species of grasses but is monophagous on its winter host, Prunus padus L. The monophagy on P. padus could be a result of the restricted host range of the several different generations colonizing, or feeding, on this host during autumn–winter–spring. This study shows that the winter host plant specificity of R. padi is controlled mainly by the preference of the females remigrating (gynoparae) to the winter host, P. padus, in autumn. The other generations living on the winter host, i.e., sexual females, males, and spring generations, all accept a broader range of winter hosts. One alternative host plant, Prunus spinosa L., could be utilized by all generations associated with the winter host, except for the females remigrating at autumn.     

桂北不同林龄桉树人工林土壤微生物数量和酶活性特征研究

为探讨桉树不同林龄土壤微生物活性的响应特征,该研究采用时空互代法,选择广西北部低山丘陵地区1～5年生桉树人工林为研究对象,分析了土壤微生物、酶活性在不同土层和季节的变化规律。结果表明:(1)土壤微生物和酶活性在土层中有明显的垂直分布特征,均随土层加深而趋于降低,且各土层间差异显著。(2)细菌、放线菌数量随季节的大小顺序为秋季>夏季>春季>冬季,真菌的变化规律为春季>夏季>秋季>冬季,而酶活性随季节变化表现为夏季、秋季活性较高,春季、冬季活性较低。(3)细菌、真菌、脲酶、过氧化氢酶随林龄增大表现出先减小后增大的趋势,放线菌则呈现先减小后增大再减小的趋势,而蔗糖酶、酸性磷酸酶随林龄的增大趋于增大。(4)林地土壤中三大类群微生物与四种土壤酶之间存在极显著正相关关系,说明土壤微生物与土壤酶活性相互影响,两者之间关系密切,共同影响土壤的质量。综上可知,不同土层土壤微生物和酶活性的季节响应特征差异较大,总体在冬季最低,主要与气温、水分条件、凋落物养分的归还等有关。不同季节、土层、林龄之间的交互作用对土壤微生物和酶活性有显著影响。     

Flowering phenology of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Ulex europaeus</Emphasis>: ecological consequences of variation within and among populations

Reproductive phenology of gorse (Ulex europaeus L., Genisteae, Fabaceae) is unusual in that the onset and duration of flowering vary greatly among individuals within populations: some plants initiate flowering in autumn or winter and continue flowering through spring, others initiate flowering in early spring. To understand the origin of this diversity and its ecological consequences, we investigated flowering phenology of randomly sampled individuals from five different natural populations in Brittany (France). Reproductive success was evaluated for individuals with contrasting flowering patterns, from 16 natural populations. Flower production, pod production, seed production and seed predation were estimated. Plants initiating flowering in spring produced larger numbers of flowers and pods over a shorter period than plants flowering from winter to spring, which produced few flowers and pods at a time but over a longer period. Pod production of long-flowering plants did not differ significantly between winter and spring, but their pods were more intensively attacked by seed predators in spring than in winter. We discuss our results in relation to biotic and abiotic parameters. We postulate that long-flowering can be interpreted as a bet-hedging strategy, spreading the risk of pod failure (rotting or freezing) in winter and of seed predation in spring.     

First Quantitative Study of Rove Beetles in Oklahoma Winter Wheat Fields

Adult rove beetles (Staphylinidae) were sampled every 7–14 days from one winter wheat field located in each of the four major wheat growing regions of Oklahoma during the 1999–2000 and 2000–2001 growing seasons. The number of cereal aphids per tiller, wheat plant growth stage, and wheat tiller density also were estimated. A total of 12 genera representing 13 species of beetles were collected from the field. The density of rove beetles was generally low, ranging from 0.003 beetles per m² in fall to 0.106 beetles per m² in spring. Rove beetle communities differed among seasons. After accounting for the effect of season, there was no statistically significant association between rove beetle community structure and field location, aphid density, wheat plant growth stage, or wheat plant density. Most rove beetle species showed no association with a particular season, however, Aleochara notula Erichson, Lathrobium sp., and Oxypoda sp. were present predominantly in fall, while Bisnius inquitus Erichson was associated with winter. Oxypoda sp. was the most abundant rove beetle in winter wheat fields in spring and was relatively abundant in winter, but was not collected from wheat fields in fall. Tachyporus jocosus Say was present in wheat fields during all seasons. T. jocosus was the most abundant rove beetle species in the winter wheat fields in fall and winter and was the second most abundant species during spring.     

滨海沙地植物厚藤叶片生理特征的季节变化

滨海沙地条件恶劣,季节气候环境差异较大,植物生存困难。厚藤是南方滨海沙地广泛分布的重要固沙植物。为探究厚藤对不同季节环境变化的适应机制,研究其叶片生理性状的季节变化,该文以广西滨海沙地自然生长的厚藤为实验材料,分别测定了不同季节厚藤叶片的叶绿素含量、渗透物质含量、抗氧化酶活性、叶绿素荧光参数等生理指标,并进行相关性分析和主成分分析。结果表明:(1)叶绿素含量随季节变化的趋势一致,春季均显著大于其他三个季节,但叶绿素a/b在各季节间无显著变化。(2)叶绿素荧光参数的F_v/F_m和F_v/F_o具有相同的变化趋势,整体表现为夏冬季显著高于春秋季。(3)脯氨酸含量随季节逐渐增大,冬季时含量最高; 可溶性糖含量冬季显著高于其他三个季节; 丙二醛(MDA)含量各季节间差异不显著。(4)春季的超氧化物歧化酶(SOD)活性和过氧化氢酶(CAT)活性显著高于其他季节,夏秋冬季节间无显著差异; 过氧化物酶(POD)活性在各季节间差异不显著。(5)相关性分析和主成分分析显示,各生理指标与气候因子间存在一定的关联。温度和日照数显著影响可溶性糖含量; 叶绿素含量和抗氧化酶活性能够较好地反映厚藤对季节气候变化的响应。综上可知,厚藤可通过调节叶绿素a与叶绿素b含量使叶绿素a/b保持稳定,同时提高渗透调节物质含量和抗氧化酶活性以适应季节变化,其中光合作用和抗氧化酶系统是影响其季节性适应能力的关键。     

Serum biochemical profile of Mizoram strain female Mithun (Bos frontalis) at different age and season

The present investigation aimed at generating baseline biochemical profile of Mizoram strain female mithun (Bos frontalis) at the age groups of calves (6 months to 1 year), heifer (1 to 3 years) and adult (above 3 years) during monsoon, winter and spring of a year. Glucose level was significantly (p ≤ 0.01) highest in heifers during monsoon season and lowest in adults in all the seasons. Protein level was significantly (p ≤ 0.01) highest during monsoon season in heifers and lowest in calves. Albumin level was significantly (p ≤ 0.01) highest in heifers and lowest in calves. Globulin and A: G ratio showed non-significant variation with age. Calves (23.05 ± 4.20) and heifer (23.13 ± 4.88) have significantly (p ≤ 0.01) higher urea concentration during winter and in adult (38.66 ± 1.35) during spring season. Creatinine level was highest in calves during monsoon which decreased significantly (p ≤ 0.01) with age in this season. Direct bilirubin level significantly (p ≤ 0.01) decreased as age increases and the highest concentration was observed during spring season. Total cholesterol, HDL-cholesterol and triglyceride level increased significantly (p ≤ 0.01) with age in all seasons with the highest values observed during winter season.     

Seasonal Variation in the Orcadian Rhythm of Pulmonary Function in Stable Astthmatic Children who have Nearly Outgrown their Asthma

To study whether nocturnal bronchial obstruction changes during the year, we assessed the circadian FEV₁ variation during four consecutive seasons in 20 children (12 boys; aged 9–12 years) with episodic asthma who were outgrowing their asthma. FEV₁ was determined every 4 h between 10:00 and 10:00 during two consecutive days. The last six FEV₁ values were submitted to cosinor and coefficient of variation (CV) analyses. The seasonal means (SD) in the group 24 h percent predicted FEV₁ was 85.5 (11.4), 81.2 (10.6), 86.0 (11.6), and 82.2 (14.0)% during spring, summer, autumn, and winter, respectively. The difference between the summer and autumn FEV₁ values was statistically significant (p < 0.05). The mean (SD) of the circadian amplitude values was 4.1 (4.3), 6.0 (3.8), 4.9 (3.4), and 7.2 (4.1)% during spring, summer, autumn, and winter, respectively. The difference in amplitude between the spring and winter and between the autumn and winter values was statistically significant (p<0.05). CV values of 48 of the 80 (60%) circadian FEV, time series exceeded the average CV of 5% observed in non-asthmatic children studied in our laboratory. There was an unequal distribution during the year in elevated CV values; 6, 17, 10, and 15 of the high CV values occurred, respectively, in the spring, summer, autumn, and winter. These results suggest that nocturnal bronchial obstruction may change seasonally in terms of severity and amplitude in children who have nearly outgrown their asthma. (Chronobiology International, 13(4), 295–303, 1996)     

Metabolic characteristics and body composition in house finches: effects of seasonal acclimatization

House finches (Carpodacus mexicanus) from the introduced population in the eastern United States were examined to assess metabolic characteristics and aspects of body composition associated with seasonal acclimatization. Wild birds were captured during winter (January and February) and late spring (May and June) in southeastern Michigan. Standard metabolic rates did not differ seasonally, but cold-induced peak metabolic rate was 28% greater in winter than late spring. The capacity to maintain elevated metabolic rates during cold exposure (thermogenic endurance) increased significantly from an average of 26.1 to 101.3 min in late spring and winter, respectively. House finches captured in the late afternoon during winter had twice as much stored fat as those during late spring. Both the wet mass and lean dry mass of the pectoralis muscle, a primary shivering effector, were significantly greater during winter. The seasonal changes in peak metabolism and thermogenic endurance demonstrate the existence and magnitude of metabolic seasonal acclimatization in eastern house finches. Increased quantities of stored fat during winter appear to play a role in acclimatization, yet other physiological adjustments such as lipid mobilization and catabolism are also likely to be involved.Abbreviations bm body mass(es) - MR metabolic rate(s) - MR _peak peak metabolic rate(s) - SMR standard metabolic rate(s)     

Breeding biology of Tenagomysis tasmaniae Fenton,Anisomysis mixta australis (Zimmer) and Paramesopodopsis rufa Fenton from south-eastern Tasmania (Crustacea: Mysidacea)

The number, size and developmental stage of young in the brood pouch of female Tenagomysis tasmaniae, Anisomysis mixta australis and Paramesopodopsis rufa was recorded throughout the year. Breeding was intensive from spring till the end of autumn for the three species. Calculation of the egg ratio for each species showed that their major reproductive peaks occurred during spring and summer. A winter depression in the breeding cycle was observed for T. tasmaniae and P. rufa, but A. mixta australis ceased breeding during winter. Seasonal variation in the length of gravid females and number of young carried was evident for these three species. Females were longer in spring and summer and carried more young than in autumn and winter. A linear relationship between female length and brood size was demonstrated for each species; annual and seasonal equations were calculated for females carrying each developmental stage. The seasonal equations showed that for a female of given length fecundity was greater during spring than any other season. Natality was estimated to be highest during late spring, summer and early autumn for the three species. No seasonal variation in the size of eggs was evident for the three species. The reproduction pattern of T. tasmaniae, A. mixta australis and P. rufa appears to be very similar to that reported for the majority of iteroparous coastal temperate mysids throughout the world.     

Population dynamics of Panonychus osmanthi (Acari: Tetranychidae) on two Osmanthus species

Panonychus osmanthi is a non-diapausing species of spider mite that superficially resembles P. citri. It infests Osmanthus species, which are evergreen roadside and garden trees. The population dynamics of P. osmanthi were studied on Osmanthus aurantiacus and O.×fortunei during a three-year period. Seasonal changes in P. osmanthi populations were fundamentally the same in each year, although their density differed greatly from year to year. TheP. osmanthi population was bimodal, with one peak in spring (May–June) and another in winter (November–January). Populations abruptly declined after the spring peak. Predators showed a delayed density-dependent response to changes in spider mites from spring to summer, whereas in autumn and winter, predators were few because they had entered diapause. To determine the effect of predators on the rapid decline of spider mites just after the spring peak, the predators were removed by treating the trees with a synthetic pyrethroid. As a result, spider mite density did not decline after the spring peak and remained at a high level during the June-August period when spider mite density is usually very low. This suggests that predators play an important role in the drastic decline of P. osmanthi density just after the spring peak. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Foraging behavior of redheads (Aythya americana) wintering in Texas and Louisiana

Redheads, Aythya americana, concentrate in large numbers annually in traditional wintering areas along the western and northern rim of the Gulf of Mexico. Two of these areas are the Laguna Madre of Texas and Chandeleur Sound of Louisiana. We collected data on 54,340 activities from 103 redhead flocks in Texas and 51,650 activities from 57 redhead flocks in Louisiana. Males and females fed similarly, differing neither in levels of feeding (percent of all birds in flock that were feeding) (p>0.90) nor in percentages of birds feeding by diving, tipping, dipping, or gleaning from the surface (p>0.10). The foraging level of redheads in the upper Laguna Madre region was relatively constant throughout two winters. Foraging of redheads in early winter in Louisiana was significantly greater than redhead foraging in the upper Laguna Madre, but by late winter, foraging by redheads in Louisiana had declined to the same level as that shown by redheads foraging in the upper Laguna Madre. The overall foraging level of redheads from Chandeleur Sound was greater (41%) than that of redheads in the upper Laguna Madre (26%), yet it was quite similar to the 46% foraging level reported for redheads from the lower Laguna Madre. Redheads in the upper Laguna Madre region of Texas fed more by diving than did those in the Chandeleur Sound and the lower Laguna Madre. Diving increased in frequency in late winter. Greater reliance by redheads on diving in January and February indicates that the birds altered their foraging to feed in deeper water, suggesting that the large concentrations of redheads staging at this time for spring migration may have displaced some birds to alternative foraging sites. Our results imply that the most likely period for food resources to become limiting for wintering redheads is when they are staging in late winter.     

Seasonal variation in HSP70 expression and oxidative stress in skin of zebu (Tharparkar) and crossbred (Karan Fries) cattle under tropical climate

The study aimed to evaluate inducible HSP70 (HSP70.1 and HSP70.2) gene expression and oxidative stress status in skin of cattle during different seasons. Ten each of Tharparkar (zebu) and Karan Fries (crossbred) heifers were selected from NDRI herd, Karnal. Animals were maintained under standard managemental practices followed at the farm. Skin biopsies were aseptically collected from each animal during winter, spring, and summer. Real time PCR was performed to examine HSP70 expression. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) and antioxidant enzymes (SOD and CAT) were determined by ELISA. In both the breeds, significantly higher (p < 0.05) levels of HSP70 expression, ROS, caspases, and antioxidant enzymes were observed during summer followed by winter and spring. Breeds showed no significant difference during winter and spring. During summer, HSP70 expression, ROS, and antioxidant enzymes were higher (p < 0.05) in Karan Fries than Tharparkar, whereas caspases levels were higher in Tharparker than Karan Fries. The study concludes that levels of HSP70 expression, ROS, caspases, and antioxidant enzymes in skin of cattle were strongly affected by seasonal change in temperature. Differences exist in skin tissue thermotolerance of Tharparkar and Karan Fries cattle. This might be an efficient and centrally important mechanism for better adaptability of zebu cattle to heat stress.     

Simultaneous presence of two terminal oxidases in the respiratory system of dark aerobically grown Rhodospirillum rubrum

Rhodospirillum rubrum CAF10, a spontaneous cytochrome oxidase defective mutant, was isolated from strain S1 and used to analyze the aerobic respiratory system of this bacterium. In spite of its lack of cytochrome oxidase activity, strain CAF10 grew aerobically in the dark although at a decreased rate and with a reduced final yield. Furthermore, aerobically grown mutant cells took up O₂ at high rates and membranes isolated from those cells exhibited levels of NADH and succinate oxidase activities which were similar to those of wild type membranes. It was observed also that whereas in both strains O₂ uptake (intact cells) and NADH and succinate oxidase activities (isolated membranes) were not affected by 0.2 mM KCN, the cytochrome oxidase activity of the wild type strain was inhibited about 90% by 0.2 mM KCN. These data indicate the simultaneous presence of two terminal oxidases in the respiratory system of R. rubrum, a cytochrome oxidase and an alternate oxidase, and suggest that the rate of respiratory electron transfer is not limited at the level of the terminal oxidases. It was also found that the aerobic oxidation of cellular cytochrome c ₂ required the presence of a functional cytochrome oxidase activity. Therefore it seems that this electron carrier, which only had been shown to participate in photosynthetic electron transfer, is also a constituent of the respiratory cytochrome oxidase pathway.Abbreviations DCIP 2,6-dichlorophenolindophenol - DMPD N,N-dimethyl-p-phenylenediamine - TMPD N,N,N,N-tetramethyl-p-phenylenediamine - Tricine N-[2-hydroxy-1,1-bis(hydroxymethyl)-ethyl]-glycine     

Frond elongation rates of shallow waterMacrocystis pyrifera (L.) Ag. In northern Baja California,Mexico

Macrocystis pyrifera (L.) Ag.frond elongation rates were measured during autumn-winter, spring and summer in a shallow water (7.5 m depth) kelp bed in Bahía Papalote, northern Baja California. Frond elongation was maximum during spring and minimum during winter. Frond growth was significantly correlated with solar radiation, and was highest in the smallest size fronds (0–2 m). Average frond elongation rate varied between 0.3–11% d^–1 during the study period. The relationship between average frond length and elongation rate followed an exponential curve with a negative slope during autumn-winter and summer, but was best described by a straight line during spring. Standard growth rates were obtained by a graphic method. Standard growth rates had intermediate values between those reported for southern California and southern Baja California.M. pyrifera growth cycle shows a different trend from what has been previously reported.     

Catalase,carbonic anhydrase and xanthine oxidase activities in patients with mycosis fungoides

Abstract

Mycosis fungoides (MF) is the most common form of cutaneous T-cell lymphoma. In several studies the relationship between catalase (CAT), human cytosolic carbonic anhydrases (CA; hCA-I and hCA-II) and xanthine oxidase (XO) enzyme activities have been investigated in various types of cancers but carbonic anhydrase, catalase and xanthine oxidase activities in patients with MF have not been previously reported. Therefore, in this preliminary study we aim to investigate CAT, CA and XO activities in patients with MF. This study enrolled 32 patients with MF and 26 healthy controls. According to the results, CA and CAT activities were significantly lower in patients with mycosis fungoides than controls (p?<?0.001) (p?<?0.001). There was no significant difference in XO activity between patient and control group (p?=?0.601). Within these findings, we believe these enzyme activity levels might be a potentially important finding as an additional diagnostic biochemical tool for MF.     

Thealdox-2 locus ofDrosophila melanogaster also affects sulfite oxidase and molybdenum metabolism

Mutation at thealdox-2 locus inDrosophila melanogaster affects the specific activities of four molybdoenzymes differentially during development. Sulfite oxidase activity is normal during late larval and pupal stages but is reduced during early adult stages inaldox-2 organisms. There was complete concordance among the effects ofaldox-2 on sulfite oxidase, aldehyde oxidase, xanthine dehydrogenase, and pyridoxal oxidase, when 38 stocks were analyzed which were derived from single recombination events betweenc andpx, markers which flankaldox-2. Several different biochemical analyses indicate that the active molybdoenzymes present in thealdox-2 strain are normal with respect to size, shape,pH-activity profile,K _m , and molecular weight. Significant differences were found between thealdox-2 strain and the OR control strain in their responses to dietary Na₂MoO₄ and Na₂WO₄. The mutant strain is much more resistant to the effects of dietary Na₂WO₄ and much more responsive to the administration of Na₂MoO₄ than the OR control strain when these effects are quantitated by measurements of molybdoenzyme specific activities. This evidence suggests that thealdox-2 ⁺ gene product has a molybdenum binding site which can also bind tungsten and that this site is altered in the mutant strain. The hypothesis presented explains the observed effects of thealdox-2 mutation and relates them to the other mutations reported in this gene-enzyme system.This work was supported by an Operating Grant from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council to M.M.B.     

Molybdenum hydroxylases in Drosophila. III. Further characterization of the low xanthine dehydrogenase gene

The biochemical effects of several newly induced low xanthine dehydrogenase (lxd) mutations in Drosophila melanogaster were investigated. When homozygous, all lxd alleles simultaneously interrupt each of the molybdoenzyme activities to approximately the same levels: xanthine dehydrogenase, 25%; aldehyde oxidase, 12%; pyridoxal oxidase, 0%; and sulfite oxidase, 2% as compared to the wild type. In order to evaluate potentially small complementation or dosage effects, mutant stains were made coisogenic for 3R. These enzymes require a molybdenum cofactor, and lxd cofactor levels are also reduced to less than 10% of the wild type. These low levels of molybdoenzyme activities and cofactor activity are maintained throughout development from late larval to adult stages. The lxd alleles exhibit a dosage-dependent effect on molybdoenzyme activities, indicating that these mutants are leaky for wild-type function. In addition, cofactor activity is dependent upon the number of lxd ⁺ genes present. The lxd mutation results in the production of more thermolabile XDH and AO enzyme activities, but this thermolability is not transferred with the cofactor to a reconstituted Neurospora molybdoenzyme. The lxd gene is localized to salivary region 68 A4-9, 0.1 map unit distal to the superoxide dismutase (Sod) gene.     

Molecular and Structural Characterization of Barley Vernalization Genes

Vernalization, the requirement of a period of low temperature to induce transition from the vegetative to reproductive state, is an evolutionarily and economically important trait in the Triticeae. The genetic basis of vernalization in cultivated barley (Hordeum vulgare subsp. vulgare) can be defined using the two-locus VRN-H1/VRN-H2 model. We analyzed the allelic characteristics of HvBM5A, the candidate gene for VRN-H1, from ten cultivated barley accessions and one wild progenitor accession (subsp. spontaneum), representing the three barley growth habits – winter, facultative, and spring. We present multiple lines of evidence, including sequence, linkage map location, and expression, that support HvBM5A being VRN-H1. While the predicted polypeptides from different growth habits are identical, spring accessions contain a deletion in the first intron of HvBM5A that may be important for regulation. While spring HvBM5A alleles are typified by the intron-localized deletion, in some cases, the promoter may also determine the allele type. The presence/absence of the tightly linked ZCCT-H gene family members on chromosome 4H perfectly correlates with growth habit and we conclude that one of the three ZCCT-H genes is VRN-H2. The VRN-H2 locus is present in winter genotypes and deleted from the facultative and spring genotypes analyzed in this study, suggesting the facultative growth habit (cold tolerant, vernalization unresponsive) is a result of deletion of the VRN-H2 locus and presence of a winter HvBM5A allele. All reported barley vernalization QTLs can be explained by the two-locus VRN-H1/VRN-H2 model based on the presence/absence of VRN-H2 and a winter vs. spring HvBM5A allele. Electronic Supplementary Material Electronic Supplementary material is available for this article at and accessible for authorised users.