Future utilization of cereal crops

Estimates made on the uses for cereals (corn, wheat, oats, barley, sorghum, rice, and rye) in 1975 are based upon a number of assumptions. If those made in this article are approached, the pattern of cereal use will be much the same as it is at present.     

不同禾本科作物与花生混作对花生根系质外体铁的累积和还原力的影响

采用土培盆栽方法模拟玉米/花生、大麦/花生、燕麦/花生、小麦/花生、高粱/花生5种种植方式,研究混作对花生根系质外体铁的累积和还原力的影响.结果表明,当花生与5种分泌植物铁载体能力不同的禾本科作物混作时,花生新叶叶色正常,而单作花生则表现出严重的缺铁黄化症状,混作花生各部位的含铁量明显增加.与麦类作物(大麦、燕麦、小麦)混作的花生其各部位铁含量高于与玉米、高粱混作的花生,说明麦类作物改善花生铁营养的能力强于玉米、高粱,而两个玉米品种之间的能力差异不大,这主要是由于麦类作物分泌植物铁载体能力高于玉米、高粱.在花生生长至第50、60和70d时,混作花生根系质外体铁含量也随着逐渐增加,并始终高于单作花生.同时,混作明显地提高了花生根际土壤有效铁的含量,花生根系还原力也逐步提高.混作花生逐渐提高的还原力和介质中不断供给的易被花生还原吸收的铁,在改善花生的铁营养方面起了重要的作用.     

不同禾本科作物与花生混作对花生根系质外体铁的累积和还原力的影响

采用土培盆栽方法模拟玉米／花生、大麦／花生、燕麦／花生、小麦／花生、高粱／花生5种种植方式,研究混作对花生根系质外体铁的累积和还原力的影响．结果表明,当花生与5种分泌植物铁载体能力不同的禾本科作物混作时,花生新叶叶色正常,而单作花生则表现出严重的缺铁黄化症状,混作花生各部位的含铁量明显增加．与麦类作物(大麦、燕麦、小麦)混作的花生其各部位铁含量高于与玉米、高粱混作的花生,说明麦类作物改善花生铁营养的能力强于玉米、高粱,而两个玉米品种之间的能力差异不大。这主要是由于麦类作物分泌植物铁载体能力高于玉米、高粱．在花生生长至第50、60和70d时,混作花生根系质外体铁含量也随着逐渐增加,并始终高于单作花生．同时,混作明显地提高了花生根际土壤有效铁的含量,花生根系还原力也逐步提高．混作花生逐渐提高的还原力和介质中不断供给的易被花生还原吸收的铁。在改善花生的铁营养方面起了重要的作用．     

六种寄主植物对二点叶蝉生长发育和繁殖的影响

在25℃恒温条件下,以盆栽玉米、小麦、高粱、水稻、谷子、大麦及虮子草为食料,研究了食物对二点叶蝉实验种群生长发育及繁殖的影响．结果表明,二点叶蝉在虮子草上不能完成世代发育．在其余6种寄主植物上各虫态的发育历期、存活率、雌成虫寿命及单雌平均产卵量存在显著差异．从卵到若虫期的发育历期在高粱上最短(24．1d),玉米上次之(24．2d),小麦上最长(25．5d);取食水稻时。若虫的存活率(40．8％)最低,成虫寿命最短(12．2d),单雌平均产卵量(12．3粒)也显著低于其它5种寄主植物．用生命表参数综合评价表明,6种寄主植物中,谷子和玉米最适合二点叶蝉生长发育及繁殖。其次分别为高粱、大麦、小麦、水稻。     

Cereal prolamin evolution and homology revealed by sequence analysis

Prolamin mixtures were isolated from oats, rice, normal and high-lysine sorghum, two varieties of pearl millet, two strains of teosinte, and gamma grass and subjected to NH₂-terminal amino acid sequence determinations. In each case (except for rice, whose prolamins apparently have blocked or unavailable NH₂-terminal residues), primarily a single sequence was observed despite significant heterogeneity, suggesting that prolamin homology in each cereal arose through duplication and mutation of a single ancestral gene. Comparisons were then made to prolamin sequences previously determined for wheat, corn, barley, and rye. Within genera, different varieties or subspecies exhibited few differences, but more distantly related genera, subtribes, and tribes showed increasingly large differences. Within the subfamily Festucoideae, no homology was apparent between prolamins of oats and those of the subtribe Triticinae (including wheat, rye, and barley, for which prolamin homology was previously demonstrated). Within the subfamily Panicoideae, corn was shown to be closely related to teosinte but more distantly to Tripsacum. Sorghum was shown to have diverged less from corn than had millet. These comparisons demonstrate that prolamin sequence analyses can successfully predict and clarify evolutionary relationships of cereals.     

Comparisons of Peptide hydrolase activities in cereals

Carboxypeptidase activity (hydrolysis of N-carbobenzoxy-l-phenylalanyl-l-alanine) is high in a number of temperate zone cereals, originating in Asia Minor (wheat, barley, oats, wild oats, rye, triticale) compared to other cereals originating in central America or Asia (maize, sorghum, rice). However, endopeptidase activity (hydrolysis of azocasein or hemoglobin) is relatively much higher in the latter group. Comparison of trichloroacetic acid (TCA)-soluble products derived from the hydrolysis of hemoglobin showed that carboxyterminal amino acids (histidine, arginine, and tyrosine), are released when extracts from wheat and barley endosperms are used. With extracts from corn endosperms, much more TCA-soluble ultraviolet- absorbing material is released, but very little is released as free amino acids within the first 2 hours and the expected C-terminal amino acids of hemoglobin are not detected in significant amounts. These results suggest that the method of hydrolysis of the storage proteins may be significantly different in these two classes of cereals.     

Phytotoxicity of pathogenic fungi and their mycotoxins to cereal seedling viability

Aspergillus flavus, Alternaria alternata and Fusarium oxysporum were found to be the pathogenic fungi mostly reducing cereal (barley, sorghum and wheat) seedlings. The pathogens have the ability to produce aflatoxin B1 and G1, diacetoxyscirpenol, kojic acid and tenuazonic acid that reduced seedling viability. The inhibition dose for 50% reduction (LD50) was recorded by aflatoxins at 0.83 mg L-1 for barley, 1.74 mg L-1 for wheat and 2.75 mg L-1 for sorghum. Diacetoxyscirpenol produced its inhibition at 1.26 mg L-1 for barley, 3.98 mg L-1 for wheat and 10 mg L-1 for sorghum. Kojic acid induced 50% inhibition at 63 mg L-1 for barley, 105 mg L-1 for wheat and 251 mg L-1 for sorghum. However, tenuazonic acid was less toxic where, the toxicity was ranged between 79-550 mg L-1. The inhibition in germination was more pronounced in barley followed by wheat and negligible in sorghum to all tested mycotoxins. This inhibition attributed to the reduction in seedling amylase activity. Amylase was also reduced in the same trend: barley > wheat > sorghum. Grain treatment with carboxin-captan and thiophanatemethyl-thiram at 1 g kg-1 grain increased seedlings vigour of wheat in sterilized soil by 45 and 22%, barley by 24 and 33% and sorghum by 15 and 30%, respectively. These fungicides have also a positive effect on cereal when soil was inoculated with A. flavus, A. alternata and F. oxysporum.     

Effects of diet on population growth of psocids Lepinotus reticulatus and Liposcelis entomophila

We investigated the suitability of 11 diets as culture media for the psocids Lepinotus reticulatus Enderlein (Psocoptera: Trogiidae) and Liposcelis entomophila (Enderlein) (Psocoptera: Liposcelididae). The culture media comprised six diets made of plain cereals, namely, wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), corn (Zea mays L.), milo Sorghum bicolor (L.), barley (Hordeum vulgare L.), oats (Avena sativa L.), and rice (Oryza sativa L.), and five artificial diets. We found that, with the exception of corn, L. reticulatus population increase was greater on plain cereal diets than on artificial diets, and the greatest population growth was on oats. There was an inverse relationship between L. reticulatus population growth and diet compactness. L. entomophila populations grew fastest on wheat, barley, and a mixture of cracked wheat, rice krispies, and brewer's yeast (97:2:1, wt:wt). The proportion of females was greater in diets that were less suitable for L. entomophila population growth compared with that in the more suitable diets. Diet compactness had a weak effect on L. entomophila population growth. This study also has established the relative level of suitability of damaged wheat, corn, milo, barley, oats, and rice to L. reticulatus and L. entomophila.     

Processing cereal grains,thin stillage,and cheese whey to fuel ethanol in a farm-scale plant

Hydrous fuel ethanol (95%) and distiller's wet grain (DWG) were produced in a farm-scale plant (< 4 million liters ethanol year⁻¹) from corn, wheat, and grain sorghum particles of various sizes, from corn combined with thin stillage-whey, and from various other cereal grains. These variations were made in a search to find the best set of conditions for maximizing the energy balance (energy output divided by energy input) and minimizing the cost of ethanol production. We found that the optimum hammermill screen size for corn, wheat, and grain sorghum was 1·59–2·38 mm. In tests with thin stillage and whey a higher energy balance (2·91) occurred when one part whey was mixed with three parts stillage, rather than the reverse (2·69). However, the reverse (three parts whey and one part stillage) gave a lower ethanol cost ($0.45 liter⁻¹) than the original ($0.47 liter⁻¹). Tests with various cereal grains (corn, oats, wheat, barley, rye, and grain sorghum) gave identical energy balance values (2·26) when 10% (v/v) ethanol beers were produced. However, rye ($0.50 liter⁻¹), grain sorghum ($0.46 liter⁻¹), and corn ($0.51 liter⁻¹) yielded ethanol at the lowest net cost. Recommendations for farm-scale plants are also provided.     

RATE OF RESPIRATION AS RELATED TO AGE

In the present paper it is shown that as the leaves of corn, sorghum, wheat, and oats increase in age there is a decrease in rate of respiration; but that as the leaves become still older (past about middle age) the rate gradually increases.     

Solid Substrate Production of Alternaria alternata f. sp. sphenocleae Conidia

Sphenoclea zeylanica (gooseweed), a major weed of paddy rice in Southeast Asia, is one of the targets in a biological weed control research program in the Philippines. A fungal pathogen, Alternaria alternata f. sp. sphenocleae , is being evaluated as a biological control agent for this weed. The feasibility of solid substrate fermentation for the mass production of A. alternata f. sp. sphenocleae has been examined. Conidia production and virulence of A. alternata f. sp. sphenocleae were affected by temperature, light, and incubation period. Abundant conidia were produced under continuous light on seeds of sorghum, hard red spring wheat, and barley at 28 o C. The greatest number of conidia was produced on sorghum seed followed by barley and oats seeds at 28 o C exposed to near-ultraviolet (NUV). More conidia were produced at 28 o C under NUV light on sorghum, barley, oats, and hard red spring wheat seeds, cornmeal, and polished rice grains than on the other substrates. Less conidia were produced on these substrates under light. At 28 o C, large numbers of virulent conidia were produced on sorghum seeds after 4 weeks of incubation under either constant light or dark. A mix of equal quantities of sorghum seeds and water (w/v) maximized conidial production. Conidia produced on sorghum seeds had a shelf life of at least 12 months when stored in production flasks under room conditions (24 ±2 o C). The use of sorghum seeds as a solid substrate for production of A. alternata f. sp. sphenocleae could be a feasible method to produce conidia in a village co-operative or cottage industry type scenario in Southeast Asia.     

Use of Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA Analysis for Economically Important Food Crops

The objective of this review is to summarize numerous studies on the use of the random amplified polymorphic DNA （RAPD） technique on rice, corn, wheat, sorghum, barley, rye, and oats to examine its feasibility and validity for assessment of genetic variation, population genetics, mapping, linkage and marker assisted selection, phylogenetic analysis, and the detection of somaclonal variation. Also we discuss the advantages and limitations of RAPD. Molecular markers have entered the scene of genetic improvement in different fields of agricultural research. The simplicity of the RAPD technique made it ideal for genetic mapping, plant and animal breeding programs, and DNA fingerprinting, with particular utility in the field of population genetics.     

Foods for patients with celiac disease.

As a general rule patients with celiac disease must avoid five cereals--wheat rye, triticale, barley and oats. Very sensitive individuals must also avoid two products of these cereals--malt and hydrolyzed vegetable protein. Some less sensitive individuals may be able to tolerate barley and oats in small quantities. All other foods are acceptable, including the cereals corn, rice, buckwheat, millet and sorghum, as well as malt-flavored breakfast cereals. Wine, spirits, beer and ale are also acceptable unless otherwise contraindicated. Monosodium glutamate, other food additives and pharmaceutical preparations are also acceptable. The ingredients of prepackaged processed foods are listed on the labels. Patients with celiac disease must examine labels to ensure that they avoid the harmful cereals. With appropriate precautions they need not be concerned about eating away from home.     

Fungi that produce mycotoxins: Conditions and occurrence

The occurrence of mycotoxins, in agricultural commodities is a worldwide problem with almost all commodities being potentially susceptible to contamination under the proper conditions. The genera of fungi most implicated are Aspergillus, Penicillium and Fusarium, although the potential for toxin production varies considerably within any given species.Conditions that affect toxin production include fungal strain variation, genetic susceptibility of the host plant or commodity, moisture content, commodity composition, temperature, aeration, microbial population and stress factors. There is undoubtedly interaction between these factors so that laboratory studies involving limited variables can only, at best, approximate field conditions.Natural contamination with mycotoxins has been reported for most of the major agricultural commodities in the world including corn, wheat, rice, millet, barley, oats, sorghum, peanuts, beans, copra, some fruits and nuts and various forages; strangely, soybeans do not appear to be involved to any major extent. The major mycotoxins on commodities reported to date include aflatoxin, the trichothecenes, ochratoxin, citrinin, zearalenone, sporidesmins and some tremorgens. However, laboratory studies have shown that the fungi are capable of producing hundreds of toxic chemicals, most of which are not included in routine analyses. In addition, since toxin effects are often insidious and may go undetected, the true dimensions of the mycotoxin problem are unknown.     

Dry matter disappearance and gelatinization of grains as influenced by processing and conditioning

Four ruminally cannulated steers (average body weight 430 kg) were used in a 4 × 4 split plot. Latin square design, in situ experiment to evaluate grain processing methods and effects of grain conditioner on dry matter (DM) disappearance (DMI) and degree of gelatinization of four grains. Effects of grinding or steam flaking, with and without the addition of a commercial grain conditioner, on DMD of corn (Zea mays), barley (Hordeum vulgare), wheat (Triticum vulgare) and sorghum (Sorghum vulgare) were measured at incubation times of 0, 6, 12, 24, 36 and 48 h. Degree of gelatinization of grains was determined by polarized light microscopy as loss of birefringence.

Ground grams had greater DMD than flaked grains at 0 h (sorghum, P < 0.05), 24 h (wheat, P < 0.01), 24 h (barley, P < 0.05) and 36 h (wheat, P < 0.01); however, steam flaking increased DMD at 36 h (corn, sorghum, P < 0.01) and 48 h (sorghum, P < 0.01) compared with grinding. In situ DMD was greater (P < 0.05) for ground, ground + conditioned and steam-flaked barley than for steam-flaked + conditioned barley at 24 h. Ground wheat had the greatest (P < 0.10) DMD among ground grains at 12 and 24 h; likewise, ground + conditioned wheat had the greatest (P < 0.10) DMD among ground + conditioned grains. A trend for increased DMD of wheat was observed across time, and among processing and conditioning methods, compared with other grains. Degree of gelatinization was greater for steam-flaked than for ground grains. Corn, wheat and barley reached gelatinization at lower temperatures than sorghum. These data suggest that effects of processing and conditioning varied among grains and within grains across time. Use of a commercial grain conditioner did not consistently alter DMD of grains.     

Phytotoxicity of pathogenic fungi and their mycotoxins to cereal seedling viability

Aspergillus flavus, Alternaria alternata and Fusarium oxysporum were the pathogenic fungi most reduced cereal (barley, sorghum and wheat) seedlings. The pathogens have the ability to produce aflatoxin B₁ and G₁, diacetoxyscirpenol, kojic acid and tenuazonic acid that reduced seedling viability. The inhibition dose for 50% reduction (LD₅₀) was recorded by aflatoxins at 0.83 mg L^-1 for barley, 1.74 mg L^-1 for wheat and 2.75 mg L^-1 for sorghum. Diacetoxyscirpenol produced its inhibition at 1.26 mg L^-1 for barley, 3.98 mg L^-1 for wheat and 10 mg L^-1 for sorghum. Kojic acid induced 50% inhibition at 63 mg L^-1 for barley, 105 mg L^-1 for wheat and 251 mg L^-1 for sorghum. However, tenuazonic acid was less toxic where the toxicity ranged between 79–550 mg L^-1. The germination inhibition was more pronounced in barley followed by wheat and was negligible in sorghum for all tested mycotoxins. This inhibition was attributed to the reduction in the seedling amylase activity, where amylase was also reduced in the same trend: barley > wheat > sorghum. Grain treated with carboxin-captan and thiophanatemethyl-thiram at 1 g kg^-1 grain increased the seedlings vigour of wheat in sterilized soil by 45 and 22%, barley by 24 and 33% and sorghum by 15 and 30%, respectively. These fungicides also had a positive effect on cereal when the soil was inoculated with A. flavus, A. alternata and F. oxysporum, but the improvement was still below normal. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Production of fusarin C on cereal and soybean by Fusarium moniliforme

Two isolates of Fusarium moniliforme were compared with respect to production of a mutagenic compound, fusarin C, on seven corn varieties as well as on soybean, wheat, rye, barley, and a liquid culture medium. The isolates were originally obtained from corn and barley. Both isolates produced fusarin C on seed of all five crops within a 21-day period, and one isolate produced the largest amount on oats. Soybean was the poorest substrate for both isolates. Although the quantity of fusarin C produced on grain was isolate dependent, specific substrate requirements for each strain were suggested. The isolates differed in their ability to grow and produce fusarin C on corn with different moisture contents (16, 20, 24, and 28%). One isolate was more xerotolerant and grew at 16% moisture but did not produce the mutagen.     

Effect of age of growing turkeys on digesta viscosity and nutrient digestibility of maize, wheat, barley and oats fed as such or with enzyme supplementation

The effects of age of growing turkeys and beta-glucanase-xylanase activity-containing feed enzyme supplementation on digestibility and feeding value of pelleted maize, wheat, barley and oats were investigated in growing turkeys using excreta collection and ileal sampling by slaughter. Excreta were collected and turkeys were slaughtered at 4, 8 and 12 weeks of age. Viscosity of jejuno-duodenal digesta, caecal volatile fatty acid concentration, ileal crude protein digestibility, total tract fat digestibility and AMEN were assayed using titanium dioxide as an indigestible marker. The highest viscosities were observed in barley and wheat. Viscosity of wheat, barley and oats digesta decreased while caecal volatile fatty acid concentration, fat digestibility and AMEN increased with age. Ileal crude protein digestibility was highest in wheat and lowest in barley. Ileal crude protein digestibility significantly declined with age in most feeding treatments. Enzyme reduced digesta viscosity most efficiently in wheat and barley and improved ileal crude protein digestibility, total tract fat digestibility and AMEN in wheat, barley and oats, but interactions occurred, the effect of enzyme on viscosity being the most remarkable for wheat and barley and for the young birds.     

Production of fusarin C on cereal and soybean by Fusarium moniliforme.

Two isolates of Fusarium moniliforme were compared with respect to production of a mutagenic compound, fusarin C, on seven corn varieties as well as on soybean, wheat, rye, barley, and a liquid culture medium. The isolates were originally obtained from corn and barley. Both isolates produced fusarin C on seed of all five crops within a 21-day period, and one isolate produced the largest amount on oats. Soybean was the poorest substrate for both isolates. Although the quantity of fusarin C produced on grain was isolate dependent, specific substrate requirements for each strain were suggested. The isolates differed in their ability to grow and produce fusarin C on corn with different moisture contents (16, 20, 24, and 28%). One isolate was more xerotolerant and grew at 16% moisture but did not produce the mutagen.     

Inhibitors of animal cell-free protein synthesis from grains

We described earlier the purification and properties of a protein (tritin) from wheat that enzymatically inhibits translation in cell-free systems from animals but not plants. In this report, we have examined 11 additional grains (Family Gramineae) and three other seeds for the presence of tritin-like proteins. In addition to wheat species, barley, oats, rye, triticale and corn were found to be sources of inhibitor; no inhibitor could be detected in rice, millet, sesame, alfalfa, mung bean or common bean seeds. The inhibitors from barley and rye were purified and found to differ from tritin with respect to heat inactivation, although they are similar to tritin with respect to molecular weight, behavior during purification and specific activity. The inhibitor from corn was purified and found to differ from tritin with respect to heat inactivation and molecular weight, although it is similar to tritin in behavior during purification and specific activity. These inhibitors constitute 2–17% of the total extractable protein in these grain s. Thus, wheat, barley, rye and corn can serve as convenient sources of a family of closely related inhibitors of protein synthesis which, when conjugated with lectins, antibodies, or hormones, could prove useful as chimeric toxins.