原代培养骨骼肌细胞胰岛素抵抗模型的建立

目的:观察高脂负荷在胰岛素抵抗形成中的意义.方法:用不同浓度椋榈酸、胰岛素分别培养骨骼肌细胞2h、6h、12h、24h,对棕榈酸诱导组的一部分细胞给予1× 10-7M胰岛素刺激2h,用血糖检测试剂盒(GOD-POD)检测各组培养液中的葡萄糖含量,研究不同浓度棕榈酸、胰岛素对骨骼肌细胞摄取葡萄糖的影响,观察胰岛素的生理功效的变化.结果:0.6mM棕榈酸诱导12h以上或者5×101-M胰岛素诱导24h后,培养液中的葡萄糖浓度比正常组高且有显著性差异,表明细胞的糖代谢能力降低.经1×10-7M胰岛素刺激2h后的棕榈酸诱导组,培养液中葡萄糖的浓度与未经胰岛素刺激的棕榈酸诱导组相比无显著差异,胰岛素的生理功效降低,证实棕榈酸诱导组细胞已对胰岛素产生耐受.结论:高脂或高胰岛素条件均可诱导原代骨骼肌细胞胰岛素抵抗模型.     

棕榈酸诱导胰岛β细胞氧化应激和内质网应激的研究进展

2型糖尿病（T2DM）主要由胰岛β细胞的胰岛素分泌缺陷和胰岛素抵抗引起。棕榈酸作为人体内最丰富的游离脂肪酸之一，其体内含量过高易造成脂代谢紊乱，诱导胰岛β细胞功能障碍及胰岛素抵抗。这与T2DM的发生发展密切相关，但具体机制尚未完全明确。棕榈酸诱导胰岛β细胞发生的氧化应激和内质网应激（ERS）是影响胰岛β细胞功能以及破坏胰岛素信号传导的关键应激途径。棕榈酸通过增加线粒体氧化、二酰基甘油-蛋白质激酶C-还原型辅酶Ⅱ途径、改变线粒体呼吸链正常功能和炎症刺激加重氧化应激，通过影响内质网折叠能力、破坏胞内蛋白运输途径、上调未折叠蛋白反应相关转录因子、棕榈酰化、降解羧肽酶E和减少内质网中Ca2+促进ERS，加剧胰岛β细胞功能障碍和凋亡，最终导致T2DM的发生与发展。本文综述了棕榈酸与胰岛β细胞内氧化应激和ERS的关联性，介绍了蛋白激酶R抑制剂、人参皂苷Rg1和三黄汤等具有潜力的中、西医靶向干预药物，为T2DM的临床治疗提供新思路。     

骨骼肌细胞中UBXD8的敲除及其对脂质代谢的影响

UBXD8是能与p97/VCP相互作用共同参与内质网相关的泛素化后蛋白质降解过程的膜蛋白.新近的脂滴蛋白质组学研究表明UBXD8能够定位到脂滴上,同时有研究表明UBXD8调控甘油三酯的代谢.但是UBXD8调控甘油三酯代谢的分子机制并不清楚.因此我们采用改良的CRISPR/Cas9技术敲除小鼠成骨骼肌细胞C2C12中的UBXD8.从筛选出来的26个可能的UBXD8敲除单克隆细胞系中鉴定获得了2个确切的UBXD8敲除单克隆细胞系.研究表明,敲除UBXD8没有显著改变脂滴上蛋白质的分布,但敲除UBXD8增加了细胞内中性脂的累积.同时敲除UBXD8可缓解棕榈酸引起的胰岛素抵抗和抵抗棕榈酸引起的细胞凋亡.当在敲除UBXD8的细胞中重新过表达UBXD8后,细胞再次出现了棕榈酸引起的胰岛素抵抗及细胞凋亡.这些数据表明UBXD8在细胞脂质代谢及其异常所引起的胰岛素信号和细胞凋亡中起着十分重要的作用.     

蛋白激酶C对胰岛素抵抗骨骼肌细胞的影响

目的探讨蛋白激酶C(Protein Kinase C,PKC)在棕榈酸(Palmitic Acid,PA)诱导的骨骼肌细胞胰岛素抵抗(Isulin Resistance,IR)中的作用。方法免疫荧光鉴定原代大鼠骨骼肌细胞,氧化酶-过氧化物酶偶联法(GOD-POD法)检测培养液中葡萄糖浓度。设立对照组、棕榈酸组(PA组)、罗格列酮组(Rosiglitazone,Ros组),每组一分为二,分别加PKC抑制剂白屈莱红碱(Chelerythrine Chloride,CC)与正常培养液作用1h,Western Blot检测PKB及P-Ser473 PKB表达水平。结果 90%以上的细胞-αsarcometric actin免疫荧光染色呈阳性反应,表明培养的细胞为骨骼肌细胞;0.6mmol/L的PA作用24h可诱导骨骼肌细胞产生胰岛素抵抗;PA组与对照组相比P-Ser473 PKB水平显著降低,与本组未加CC相比显著升高。同时,罗格列酮组及本组加CC中P-Ser473PKB水平均高于PA组。结论在PA诱导的骨骼肌细胞IR方面PKC起重要作用,罗格列酮与PKC抑制剂CC均能改善PA引起的IR。     

AMPK及脂肪细胞因子调节胰岛素抵抗的研究进展

腺苷酸激活蛋白激酶(AMP-activated Protein Kina,AMPK)信号通路是调节细胞能量状态的中心环节,被称为"细胞能量调节器",在增加骨骼肌对葡萄糖的摄取、增强胰岛素(Insulins,Ins)敏感性、增加脂肪酸氧化以及调节基因转录等方面发挥重要作用.在整体水平,AMPK通过激素和脂肪细胞因子如瘦素、脂联素和抵抗素等调节能量的摄入和消耗.多种脂肪源性细胞因子表达异常与胰岛素抵抗(Insulin Resistance,IR)密切相关,而胰岛素抵抗又是Ⅱ型糖尿病发生的基础,并贯穿于Ⅱ型糖尿病发生发展的全过程.研究AMPK及脂肪细胞因子与胰岛素抵抗的关系,将为AMPK作为防治肥胖和Ⅱ型糖尿病提供新的药理学靶点.     

Tanis与胰岛素抵抗

Tanis是新发现的由189个氨基酸残基组成的蛋白质,在肝脏、脂肪和骨骼肌等组织都有其基因表达．可能作为血清淀粉样蛋白A受体参与糖代谢,并与胰岛素抵抗、Ⅱ型糖尿病的发生与发展密切相关。Tanis在胰岛素抵抗、Ⅱ型糖尿病和代谢综合征动物模型的肝脏中表达水平与血糖及胰岛素浓度呈负相关．与血浆甘油三酯浓度呈正相关。Tanis的基因表达在禁食24h后的糖尿病动物模型中显增加,说明受葡萄糖调节。从目前的研究资料看,Tanis有可能成为治疗胰岛素抵抗、Ⅱ型糖尿病的新靶点而受到重视。     

MicroRNAs对骨骼肌胰岛素抵抗的调控及其机制

胰岛素抵抗是肥胖和2型糖尿病发生的共同病理生理机制。骨骼肌是胰岛素介导的葡萄糖摄取、代谢、利用的主要靶器官之一,是胰岛素抵抗发生最早和最重要的部位。研究表明,骨骼肌葡萄糖摄取障碍、胰岛素信号通路受损、线粒体生物合成受阻与骨骼肌胰岛素抵抗密切相关。当骨骼肌发生胰岛素抵抗时,多种microRNAs (miRNAs)表达上调(miR-106b,miR-23a,mi R-761,miR-135a,Let-7,miR-29a)或下调(miR-133a,miR-149,miR-1),它们参与对骨骼肌葡萄糖摄取、胰岛素信号通路及线粒体生物合成的调控,在骨骼肌胰岛素抵抗的发生与发展中发挥了重要作用。这些miRNAs可作为治疗骨骼肌胰岛素抵抗或糖尿病的潜在靶点。     

骨骼肌脂肪异位沉积在高脂膳食诱导胰岛素抵抗中的作用

高脂膳食会引起机体摄入脂肪的增加,导致人体内过量的脂肪储存,甚至超过人体脂肪组织的储存能力,造成脂肪的异位沉积,即在肝脏和骨骼肌等糖代谢的重要组织积累。最近的研究表明,与肥胖相比,骨骼肌脂肪含量与胰岛素抵抗的发生相关性更高。骨骼肌是最大的糖代谢场所,约80%～90%的2型糖尿病的发病原因为骨骼肌胰岛素抵抗。因此,骨骼肌脂肪含量与胰岛素抵抗之间的关系成为最近研究的热点,本文综述了高脂膳食引起骨骼肌脂肪异位沉积,进而诱导产生骨骼肌胰岛素抵抗的主要机制的研究进展。     

中国仓鼠自发性2型糖尿病基础代谢特征及相关基因的表达差异

目的 探究自发性2型糖尿病中国仓鼠糖脂代谢、体成分、昼夜运动及新陈代谢等基础代谢特征和相关基因在骨骼肌、肝中的表达情况。方法 根据中国仓鼠空腹血糖(FBG)和餐后血糖(PBG)值,选取对照组(FBG≤4.5 mmol/L且PBG<6.0 mmol/L)与糖尿病组(FBG≥6.0 mmol/L且PBG>7.0 mmol/L),测定动物体重、血糖、血脂、血清胰岛素含量及糖耐量,分析动物体成分,昼夜运动及新陈代谢特征,检测相关基因葡萄糖转运蛋白4(glucose transporter 4,Glut4)和过氧化物酶体增殖激活受体-γ(peroxisomeproliferative activated receptor-γ,Pparg)在骨骼肌和肝中的表达情况。结果 与对照组相比,中国仓鼠糖尿病组血糖、血脂含量增加,血清胰岛素含量和胰岛素抵抗指数(homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance,HOMA-IR)增大,体脂率降低,摄食量和白天活动量增加,热量消耗增大。PPARG在肝和骨骼肌中的mRNA和蛋白表达水平显著增加;GLUT4在骨骼肌中的mRNA和蛋白表达水平显著降低。结论 自发性2型糖尿病中国仓鼠属于糖脂代谢异常,能产生胰岛素抵抗的非肥胖型2型糖尿病动物模型,GLUT4的下调可能与骨骼肌中异常的糖代谢及胰岛素抵抗有关,而上调的PPARG可能有利于机体胰岛素抵抗状态的缓解。     

十子代平方水煎液对原代骨骼肌细胞胰岛素抵抗模型的影响

本实验观察十子代平方对原代骨骼肌细胞胰岛素抵抗模型的影响,探讨其改善胰岛素抵抗的作用机制。对原代骨骼肌细胞应用5×10-7mol/L胰岛素干预12 h建立胰岛素抵抗模型,应用十子代平方高、中、低浓度(400、100、25μg/m L)(SZDP-H、SZDP-M、SZDP-L)对造模成功的骨骼肌细胞进行干预,同时另设正常组、模型组,吡格列酮组(40μmol/L)作对照,药物干预24 h后用葡萄糖氧化酶法测定骨骼肌细胞上清液葡萄糖剩余量,采用Western-blot方法测定该方药物干预后骨骼肌细胞AKT、GSK-3β蛋白的表达。实验结果表明十子代平方可以改善骨骼肌细胞胰岛素抵抗模型的葡萄糖代谢,增加AKT和磷酸化位点Ser473蛋白表达,降低GSK-3β蛋白表达,增加其磷酸化位点Ser9蛋白表达。十子代平方可能通过调节AKT/GSK3β通路的机制改善胰岛素抵抗模型骨骼肌细胞的葡萄糖代谢。     

Molecular identification and characterization of a novel nuclear protein whose expression is up-regulated in insulin-resistant animals

Energy metabolism is the most fundamental capacity for mammals, impairment of which causes a variety of diseases such as type 2 diabetes and insulin resistance. Here, we identified a novel gene, termed diabetes-related ankyrin repeat protein (DARP) that is up-regulated in the heart of KKA(y) mouse, a type 2 diabetes and insulin resistance model animal. DARP contains putative nuclear localization signals and four tandem ankyrin-like repeats. Its expression is restricted in heart, skeletal muscle, and brown adipose. Western blot analysis and immunocytochemistry of DARP-transfected Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) and COS-7 cells reveal that DARP is a nuclear protein. When DARP is expressed in CHO cells, [1-(14)C]palmitate uptake is significantly decreased, whereas the palmitate oxidation does not show significant change. Furthermore, DARP expression is altered by the change of energy supply induced by excess fatty acid treatment of skeletal myotube in vitro and fasting treatment of C57 mouse in vivo. We confirmed that DARP expression is also altered in Zucker fatty rat, another insulin resistance model animal. Taken together, these data suggest that DARP is a novel nuclear protein potentially involved in the energy metabolism. Detailed analysis of DARP may provide new insights in the energy metabolism.     

Improvement of insulin sensitivity by antagonism of the renin-angiotensin system

The reduced capacity of insulin to stimulate glucose transport into skeletal muscle, termed insulin resistance, is a primary defect leading to the development of prediabetes and overt type 2 diabetes. Although the etiology of this skeletal muscle insulin resistance is multifactorial, there is accumulating evidence that one contributor is overactivity of the renin-angiotensin system (RAS). Angiotensin II (ANG II) produced from this system can act on ANG II type 1 receptors both in the vascular endothelium and in myocytes, with an enhancement of the intracellular production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Evidence from animal model and cultured skeletal muscle cell line studies indicates ANG II can induce insulin resistance. Chronic ANG II infusion into an insulin-sensitive rat produces a markedly insulin-resistant state that is associated with a negative impact of ROS on the skeletal muscle glucose transport system. ANG II treatment of L6 myocytes causes impaired insulin receptor substrate (IRS)-1-dependent insulin signaling that is accompanied by augmentation of NADPH oxidase-mediated ROS production. Further critical evidence has been obtained from the TG(mREN2)27 rat, a model of RAS overactivity and insulin resistance. The TG(mREN2)27 rat displays whole body and skeletal muscle insulin resistance that is associated with local oxidative stress and a significant reduction in the functionality of the insulin receptor (IR)/IRS-1-dependent insulin signaling. Treatment with a selective ANG II type 1 receptor antagonist leads to improvements in whole body insulin sensitivity, enhanced insulin-stimulated glucose transport in muscle, and reduced local oxidative stress. In addition, exercise training of TG(mREN2)27 rats enhances whole body and skeletal muscle insulin action. However, these metabolic improvements elicited by antagonism of ANG II action or exercise training are independent of upregulation of IR/IRS-1-dependent signaling. Collectively, these findings support targeting the RAS in the design of interventions to improve metabolic and cardiovascular function in conditions of insulin resistance associated with prediabetes and type 2 diabetes.     

Mitochondrial dysfunction and inhibition of myoblast differentiation in mice with high-fat-diet-induced pre-diabetes

Pre-diabetes is characterized by impaired glucose tolerance (IGT) and/or impaired fasting glucose. Impairment of skeletal muscle function is closely associated with the progression of diabetes. However, the entire pathological characteristics and mechanisms of pre-diabetes in skeletal muscle remain fully unknown. Here, we established a mouse model of pre-diabetes, in which 6-week-old male C57BL6/J mice were fed either normal diet or high-fat diet (HFD) for 8 or 16 weeks. Both non-fasting and fasting glucose levels and the results of glucose and insulin tolerance tests showed that mice fed an 8-week HFD developed pre-diabetes with IGT; whereas mice fed a 16-week HFD presented with impaired fasting glucose and impaired glucose tolerance (IFG-IGT). Mice at both stages of pre-diabetes displayed decreased numbers of mitochondria in skeletal muscle. Moreover, IFG-IGT mice exhibited decreased mitochondrial membrane potential and ATP production in skeletal muscle and muscle degeneration characterized by a shift in muscle fibers from predominantly oxidative type I to glycolytic type II. Western blotting and histological analysis confirmed that myoblast differentiation was only inhibited in IFG-IGT mice. For primary skeletal muscle satellite cells, inhibition of differentiation was observed in palmitic acid-induced insulin resistance model. Moreover, enhanced myoblast differentiation increased glucose uptake and insulin sensitivity. These findings indicate that pre-diabetes result in mitochondrial dysfunction and inhibition of myoblast differentiation in skeletal muscle. Therefore, interventions that enhance myoblast differentiation may improve insulin resistance of diabetes at the earlier stage.     

Oxidative stress and the etiology of insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes

The condition of oxidative stress arises when oxidant production exceeds antioxidant activity in cells and plasma. The overabundance of oxidants is mechanistically connected to the multifactorial etiology of insulin resistance, primarily in skeletal muscle tissue, and the subsequent development of type 2 diabetes. Two important mechanisms for this oxidant excess are (1) the mitochondrial overproduction of hydrogen peroxide and superoxide ion under conditions of energy surplus and (2) the enhanced activation of cellular NADPH oxidase via angiotensin II receptors. Several recent studies are reviewed that support the concept that direct exposure of mammalian skeletal muscle to an oxidant stress (including hydrogen peroxide) results in stimulation of the serine kinase p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (p38 MAPK), and that the engagement of this stress-activated p38 MAPK signaling is mechanistically associated with diminished insulin-dependent stimulation of insulin signaling elements and glucose transport activity. The beneficial interactions between the antioxidant α-lipoic acid and the advanced glycation end-product inhibitor pyridoxamine that ameliorate oxidant stress-associated defects in whole-body and skeletal-muscle insulin action in the obese Zucker rat, a model of prediabetes, are also addressed. Overall, this review highlights the importance of oxidative stress in the development of insulin resistance in mammalian skeletal muscle tissue, at least in part via a p38-MAPK-dependent mechanism, and indicates that interventions that reduce this oxidative stress and oxidative damage can improve insulin action in insulin-resistant animal models. Strategies to prevent and ameliorate oxidative stress remain important in the overall treatment of insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes.     

Intramuscular lipid metabolism, insulin action, and obesity

With the increasing prevalence of obesity, research has focused on the molecular mechanism(s) linking obesity and skeletal muscle insulin resistance. Metabolic alterations within muscle, such as changes in the cellular location of fatty acid transporter proteins, decreased mitochondrial enzyme activity, and defects in mitochondrial morphology, likely contribute to obesity and insulin resistance. These defects are thought to play a role in the reduced skeletal muscle fatty acid oxidation and increased intramuscular lipid (IMCL) accumulation that is apparent with obesity and other insulin-resistant states such as type 2 diabetes. Intramuscular triacylglycerol does not appear to be a ubiquitous marker of insulin resistance, although specific IMCL intermediates such as long-chain fatty acyl-CoAs, ceramide, and diacylglycerol may inhibit insulin signal transduction. In this review, we will briefly summarize the defects in skeletal muscle lipid metabolism associated with obesity, and discuss the proposed mechanisms by which these defects may contribute to insulin resistance.     

Alpha-lipoic acid increases insulin sensitivity by activating AMPK in skeletal muscle

Triglyceride accumulation in skeletal muscle contributes to insulin resistance in obesity. We recently showed that alpha-lipoic acid (ALA) reduces body weight and prevents the development of diabetes in diabetes-prone obese rats by reducing triglyceride accumulation in non-adipose tissues. AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) is a major regulator of cellular energy metabolism. We examined whether ALA lowers triglyceride accumulation in skeletal muscle by activating AMPK. Alpha2-AMPK activity was decreased in obese rats compared to control rats. Administration of ALA to obese rats increased insulin-stimulated glucose disposal in whole body and in skeletal muscle. ALA also increased fatty acid oxidation and activated AMPK in skeletal muscle. Adenovirus-mediated administration of dominant negative AMPK into skeletal muscle prevented the ALA-induced increases in fatty acid oxidation and insulin-stimulated glucose uptake. These results suggest that ALA-induced improvement of insulin sensitivity is mediated by activation of AMPK and reduced triglyceride accumulation in skeletal muscle.     

Agonist-induced activation releases peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor beta/delta from its inhibition by palmitate-induced nuclear factor-kappaB in skeletal muscle cells

The mechanisms by which elevated levels of free fatty acids cause insulin resistance are not well understood, but there is a strong correlation between insulin resistance and intramyocellular lipid accumulation in skeletal muscle. In addition, accumulating evidence suggests a link between inflammation and type 2 diabetes. The aim of this work was to study whether the exposure of skeletal muscle cells to palmitate affected peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) beta/delta activity. Here, we report that exposure of C2C12 skeletal muscle cells to 0.75 mM palmitate reduced (74%, P<0.01) the mRNA levels of the PPARbeta/delta-target gene pyruvatedehydrogenase kinase 4 (PDK-4), which is involved in fatty acid utilization. This reduction was not observed in the presence of the PPARbeta/delta agonist L-165041. This drug prevented palmitate-induced nuclear factor (NF)-kappaB activation. Increased NF-kappaB activity after palmitate exposure was associated with enhanced protein-protein interaction between PPARbeta/delta and p65. Interestingly, treatment with the PPARbeta/delta agonist L-165041 completely abolished this interaction. These results indicate that palmitate may reduce fatty acid utilization in skeletal muscle cells by reducing PPARbeta/delta signaling through increased NF-kappaB activity.     

Angiotensin II-induced skeletal muscle insulin resistance mediated by NF-kappaB activation via NADPH oxidase

Reduced insulin sensitivity is a key factor in the pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes and hypertension. Skeletal muscle insulin resistance is particularly important for its major role in insulin-mediated glucose disposal. Angiotensin II (ANG II) is integral in regulating blood pressure and plays a role in the pathogenesis of hypertension. In addition, we have documented that ANG II-induced skeletal muscle insulin resistance is associated with generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). However, the linkage between ROS and insulin resistance in skeletal muscle remains unclear. To explore potential mechanisms, we employed the transgenic TG(mRen2)27 (Ren-2) hypertensive rat, which harbors the mouse renin transgene and exhibits elevated tissue ANG II levels, and skeletal muscle cell culture. Compared with Sprague-Dawley normotensive control rats, Ren-2 skeletal muscle exhibited significantly increased oxidative stress, NF-kappaB activation, and TNF-alpha expression, which were attenuated by in vivo treatment with an angiotensin type 1 receptor blocker (valsartan) or SOD/catalase mimetic (tempol). Moreover, ANG II treatment of L6 myotubes induced NF-kappaB activation and TNF-alpha production and decreased insulin-stimulated Akt activation and GLUT-4 glucose transporter translocation to plasma membranes. These effects were markedly diminished by treatment of myotubes with valsartan, the antioxidant N-acetylcysteine, NADPH oxidase-inhibiting peptide (gp91 ds-tat), or NF-kappaB inhibitor (MG-132). Similarly, NF-kappaB p65 small interfering RNA reduced NF-kappaB p65 subunit expression and nuclear translocation and TNF-alpha production but improved insulin-stimulated phosphorylation (Ser(473)) of Akt and translocation of GLUT-4. These findings suggest that NF-kappaB plays an important role in ANG II/ROS-induced skeletal muscle insulin resistance.     

Adipocyte dysfunctions linking obesity to insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes

Acquired resistance to the action of insulin to stimulate glucose transport in skeletal muscle is associated with obesity and promotes the development of type 2 diabetes. In skeletal muscle, insulin resistance can result from high levels of circulating fatty acids that disrupt insulin signalling pathways. However, the severity of insulin resistance varies greatly among obese people. Here we postulate that this variability might reflect differences in levels of lipid-droplet proteins that promote the sequestration of fatty acids within adipocytes in the form of triglycerides, thereby lowering exposure of skeletal muscle to the inhibitory effects of fatty acids.