SUMO modification of PCNA is controlled by DNA

Post-translational modification by the ubiquitin-like protein SUMO is often regulated by cellular signals that restrict the modification to appropriate situations. Nevertheless, many SUMO-specific ligases do not exhibit much target specificity, and--compared with the diversity of sumoylation substrates--their number is limited. This raises the question of how SUMO conjugation is controlled in vivo. We report here an unexpected mechanism by which sumoylation of the replication clamp protein, PCNA, from budding yeast is effectively coupled to S phase. We find that loading of PCNA onto DNA is a prerequisite for sumoylation in vivo and greatly stimulates modification in vitro. To our surprise, however, DNA binding by the ligase Siz1, responsible for PCNA sumoylation, is not strictly required. Instead, the stimulatory effect of DNA on conjugation is mainly attributable to DNA binding of PCNA itself. These findings imply a change in the properties of PCNA upon loading that enhances its capacity to be sumoylated.     

A SUMO-interacting motif activates budding yeast ubiquitin ligase Rad18 towards SUMO-modified PCNA

SUMO-targeted ubiquitin ligases (STUbLs) recognize sumoylated proteins as substrates for ubiquitylation and have been implicated in several aspects of DNA repair and the damage response. However, few physiological STUbL substrates have been identified, and the relative importance of SUMO binding versus direct interactions with the substrate remains a matter of debate. We now present evidence that the ubiquitin ligase Rad18 from Saccharomyces cerevisiae, which monoubiquitylates the sliding clamp protein proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) in response to DNA damage, exhibits the hallmarks of a STUbL. Although not completely dependent on sumoylation, Rad18’s activity towards PCNA is strongly enhanced by the presence of SUMO on the clamp. The stimulation is brought about by a SUMO-interacting motif in Rad18, which also mediates sumoylation of Rad18 itself. Our results imply that sumoylated PCNA is the physiological ubiquitylation target of budding yeast Rad18 and suggest a new mechanism by which the transition from S phase-associated sumoylation to damage-induced ubiquitylation of PCNA is accomplished.     

Sumoylation of the histone demethylase KDM4A is required for binding to tumor suppressor p53 in HCT116 colon cancer cell lines

The histone demethylase lysine-specific demethylase 4A (KDM4A/Jmjd2A) has diverse functions, including involvement in gene regulation and cell cycle, and plays an oncogenic role in cancer cells. The modulation of KDM4A through post-translational modifications remains unclear. Here, we show that small ubiquitin-like modifier (SUMO) 1-mediated modification of KDM4A was required for interaction with tumor suppressor p53. Our data revealed that KDM4A is mainly sumoylated at lysine residue 471. However, the SUMO modification resulted in little change in subcellular localization, demethylase activity, or protein stability of KMD4A. Intriguingly, co-immunoprecipitation data revealed that sumoylation-defective mutants of KDM4A had a lower binding ability with p53 compared to that of wild-type KDM4A, suggesting a positive role for sumoylation in the interaction between KDM4A and p53. Together, these data suggest that KDM4A is post-translationally modified by SUMO, and this sumoylation may be a novel regulatory switch for controlling the interplay between KDM4A and p53.     

Sumoylation inhibits alpha-synuclein aggregation and toxicity

Posttranslational modification of proteins by attachment of small ubiquitin-related modifier (SUMO) contributes to numerous cellular phenomena. Sumoylation sometimes creates and abolishes binding interfaces, but increasing evidence points to another role for sumoylation in promoting the solubility of aggregation-prone proteins. Using purified α-synuclein, an aggregation-prone protein implicated in Parkinson's disease that was previously reported to be sumoylated upon overexpression, we compared the aggregation kinetics of unmodified and modified α-synuclein. Whereas unmodified α-synuclein formed fibrils, modified α-synuclein remained soluble. The presence of as little as 10% sumoylated α-synuclein was sufficient to delay aggregation significantly in vitro. We mapped SUMO acceptor sites in α-synuclein and showed that simultaneous mutation of lysines 96 and 102 to arginine significantly impaired α-synuclein sumoylation in vitro and in cells. Importantly, this double mutant showed increased propensity for aggregation and cytotoxicity in a cell-based assay and increased cytotoxicity in dopaminergic neurons of the substantia nigra in vivo. These findings strongly support the model that sumoylation promotes protein solubility and suggest that defects in sumoylation may contribute to aggregation-induced diseases.     

Dual roles of the SUMO-interacting motif in the regulation of Srs2 sumoylation

The Srs2 DNA helicase of Saccharomyces cerevisiae affects recombination in multiple ways. Srs2 not only inhibits recombination at stalled replication forks but also promotes the synthesis-dependent strand annealing (SDSA) pathway of recombination. Both functions of Srs2 are regulated by sumoylation-sumoylated PCNA recruits Srs2 to the replication fork to disfavor recombination, and sumoylation of Srs2 can be inhibitory to SDSA in certain backgrounds. To understand Srs2 function, we characterize the mechanism of its sumoylation in vitro and in vivo. Our data show that Srs2 is sumoylated at three lysines, and its sumoylation is facilitated by the Siz SUMO ligases. We also show that Srs2 binds to SUMO via a C-terminal SUMO-interacting motif (SIM). The SIM region is required for Srs2 sumoylation, likely by binding to SUMO-charged Ubc9. Srs2's SIM also cooperates with an adjacent PCNA-specific interaction site in binding to sumoylated PCNA to ensure the specificity of the interaction. These two functions of Srs2's SIM exhibit a competitive relationship: sumoylation of Srs2 decreases the interaction between the SIM and SUMO-PCNA, and the SUMO-PCNA-SIM interaction disfavors Srs2 sumoylation. Our findings suggest a potential mechanism for the equilibrium of sumoylated and PCNA-bound pools of Srs2 in cells.     

Similarities and differences between Arabidopsis PCNA1 and PCNA2 in complementing the yeast DNA damage tolerance defect

Proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) forms a homotrimer that functions as a sliding clamp essential for genomic DNA replication. It is also directly involved in the regulation of cellular response to DNA damage, which is typically achieved through its covalent modifications. The Arabidopsis genome encodes two PCNAs with only nine amino acid variations, yet two recent reports indicate that AtPCNA2 plays a more critical role in DNA damage response than AtPCNA1. In this study, it was found that both AtPCNAs were able to functionally complement the essential roles of yeast POL30 (PCNA), but failed to rescue the DNA damage tolerance defect of pol30. Surprisingly, the AtPCNA1-K164R mutation rendered cells more tolerant to DNA damage, which appears to be dependent on PCNA sumoylation but not ubiquitination. Two critical residues proximal in structure to K164 were identified in AtPCNAs that contribute to their differences in DNA damage tolerance, since their amino acid substitutions alter the level of DNA damage tolerance. Collectively, it is concluded that the two AtPCNAs differ in their efficiency for ubiquitination and sumoylation, leading to their differential responses to DNA damage in yeast cells.     

SIZ1/SIZ2 control of chromosome transmission fidelity is mediated by the sumoylation of topoisomerase II

The Smt3 (SUMO) protein is conjugated to substrate proteins through a cascade of E1, E2, and E3 enzymes. In budding yeast, the E3 step in sumoylation is largely controlled by Siz1p and Siz2p. Analysis of Siz- cells shows that SUMO E3 is required for minichromosome segregation and thus has a positive role in maintaining the fidelity of mitotic transmission of genetic information. Sumoylation of the carboxy-terminus of Top2p, a known SUMO target, is mediated by Siz1p and Siz2p both in vivo and in vitro. Sumoylation in vitro reveals that Top2p is an extremely potent substrate for Smt3p conjugation and that chromatin-bound Top2p can still be sumoylated, unlike many other SUMO substrates. By combining mutations in the TOP2 sumoylation sites and the SIZ1 and SIZ2 genes we demonstrate that the minichromosome segregation defect and dicentric minichromosome stabilization, both characteristic for Smt3p-E3-deficient cells, are mediated by the lack of Top2p sumoylation in these cells. A role for Smt3p-modification as a signal for Top2p targeting to pericentromeric regions was suggested by an analysis of Top2p-Smt3p fusion. We propose a model for the positive control of the centromeric pool of Top2p, required for high segregation fidelity, by Smt3p modification.     

The Human Cytomegalovirus DNA Polymerase Processivity Factor UL44 Is Modified by SUMO in a DNA-Dependent Manner

During the replication of human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) genome, the viral DNA polymerase subunit UL44 plays a key role, as by binding both DNA and the polymerase catalytic subunit it confers processivity to the holoenzyme. However, several lines of evidence suggest that UL44 might have additional roles during virus life cycle. To shed light on this, we searched for cellular partners of UL44 by yeast two-hybrid screenings. Intriguingly, we discovered the interaction of UL44 with Ubc9, an enzyme involved in the covalent conjugation of SUMO (Small Ubiquitin-related MOdifier) to cellular and viral proteins. We found that UL44 can be extensively sumoylated not only in a cell-free system and in transfected cells, but also in HCMV-infected cells, in which about 50% of the protein resulted to be modified at late times post-infection, when viral genome replication is accomplished. Mass spectrometry studies revealed that UL44 possesses multiple SUMO target sites, located throughout the protein. Remarkably, we observed that binding of UL44 to DNA greatly stimulates its sumoylation both in vitro and in vivo. In addition, we showed that overexpression of SUMO alters the intranuclear distribution of UL44 in HCMV-infected cells, and enhances both virus production and DNA replication, arguing for an important role for sumoylation in HCMV life cycle and UL44 function(s). These data report for the first time the sumoylation of a viral processivity factor and show that there is a functional interplay between the HCMV UL44 protein and the cellular sumoylation system.     

Functional reconstitution of a tunable E3-dependent sumoylation pathway in Escherichia coli

SUMO (small ubiquitin-related modifier) is a reversible post-translational protein modifier that alters the localization, activity, or stability of proteins to which it is attached. Many enzymes participate in regulated SUMO-conjugation and SUMO-deconjugation pathways. Hundreds of SUMO targets are currently known, with the majority being nuclear proteins. However, the dynamic and reversible nature of this modification and the large number of natively sumoylated proteins in eukaryotic proteomes makes molecular dissection of sumoylation in eukaryotic cells challenging. Here, we have reconstituted a complete mammalian SUMO-conjugation cascade in Escherichia coli cells that involves a functional SUMO E3 ligase, which effectively biases the sumoylation of both native and engineered substrate proteins. Our sumo-engineered E. coli cells have several advantages including efficient protein conjugation and physiologically relevant sumoylation patterns. Overall, this system provides a rapid and controllable platform for studying the enzymology of the entire sumoylation cascade directly in living cells.     

Broad spectrum identification of cellular small ubiquitin-related modifier (SUMO) substrate proteins

Reversible covalent modification of proteins with a small ubiquitin-related modifier (SUMO) is emerging as an important system contributing to dynamic regulation of protein function. To enhance our understanding of the cell regulatory systems impacted by sumoylation, we used affinity chromatography-coupled high pressure liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry for unbiased identification of candidate cellular SUMO substrate proteins. Here we describe the identification of 21 candidate sumoylated proteins from whole-cell lysates of HEK-293 cells. The nature of the proteins identified is consistent with a role for sumoylation in diverse cell regulatory systems but highlights regulation of chromatin organization and gene expression as major systems targeted by the sumoylation machinery.     

Can your protein be sumoylated? A quick summary and important tips to study SUMO-modified proteins

A diverse set of SUMO target proteins has been identified. Therefore, there is a growing interest in studying sumoylation and SUMO interactions in cells. When the sumoylation of a protein or a SUMO interaction is suspected, a standard co-immunoprecipitation analysis using anti-SUMO and anti-target protein antibody is usually performed as a first step. However, the identification of endogenous sumoylated proteins is challenging because of the activity of isopeptidases, and often only a small fraction of a target protein is sumoylated at a given time. Here, we briefly summarize several important steps to ensure a successful co-immunoprecipitation analysis to detect possible sumoylation.     

Genetic and environmental changes in SUMO homeostasis lead to nuclear mRNA retention in plants

Protein sumoylation plays an important role in plant development, flowering-time regulation, and abiotic stress response. However, the molecular role of sumoylation in these pathways is largely unknown. It was shown previously that in mutants of the inner nuclear basket nucleoporin NUA a large increase in the abundance of high-molecular weight SUMO conjugated proteins correlated with nuclear retention of bulk mRNA. Here, the connection between sumoylation and mRNA export in plants was further investigated. Both SUMO-conjugate accumulation and mRNA retention were also found in a second nucleoporin mutant that does not affect NUA, and SUMO conjugates accumulated predominantly in the nucleus. Similarly, after heat and ethanol treatment, two abiotic stress treatments known to lead to the accumulation of sumoylated proteins, nuclear mRNA was retained. To establish a causal relationship between sumoylation and mRNA export, mutations in two enzymes in the SUMO pathway were tested. Mutating either SUMO E3 ligase or SUMO isopeptidase lead to nuclear mRNA retention, indicating that both an increase and a decrease in the pool of sumoylated nuclear proteins blocks mRNA export. Together, these data show that sumoylation acts upstream of mRNA export in plants, likely through the transient sumoylation status of one or more factors involved in mRNA trafficking.