自然保护区减缓和适应气候变化的管理有效性评估: 以广西12个典型自然保护区为例

建立自然保护区是生物多样性保护的根本措施, 而且自然保护区对减缓和适应气候变化具有重要的作用。生物多样性保护的压力在气候变化的胁迫下不断加剧, 因此, 有效的自然保护区管理必须考虑气候变化的影响。发展应对气候变化威胁的适应性管理技术以提高自然保护区管理有效性是自然保护区管理的迫切需求。但目前全球范围内还没有针对减缓和适应气候变化的自然保护区管理有效性评估工具。近半个世纪来广西气温持续升高且极端气候事件频次增加, 对广西各类生物生境产生了重要的影响。本文基于世界自然保护联盟(IUCN)的自然保护区减缓和适应气候变化管理框架和管理有效性评估框架, 在管理有效性跟踪工具(mangement effectiveness tracking tool, METT)基础上提出了自然保护区减缓和适应气候变化管理有效性评估工具(management effectiveness assessment tool of mitigation and adaptation on climate change, MEATMACC), 并使用该工具和METT对广西12个典型自然保护区进行了调查分析。结果表明: 国家级自然保护区的METT得分、MEATMACC得分分别比非国家级自然保护区高28.98%和43.91%; 国家级与非国家级自然保护区的METT得分无显著差异, 但MEATMACC得分差异极显著; 两个管理有效性评估工具得分率呈线性相关但差异不显著; 两个评估工具中背景、规划与影响3个要素得分率存在极显著差异。研究结果表明, 对于自然保护区减缓和适应气候变化的政策和技术支持仍需加强。     

The Role of the Sympathoadrenomedullary System in the Formation of Pilot’s Adaptation to Flight Loads

The objective of this study was to evaluate the functions of the sympathoadrenomedullary system and the related psychophysiological reactions of pilots, depending on flying hours on a highly maneuverable aircraft. The study involved 78 volunteer pilots (41 high-maneuverability pilots and 37 bomber and transport aviation pilots). A set of methods was chosen with the possibility of their use according to the principle of comprehensive evaluation of the body functional state under flight loads taken into account. Our results indicate that highly maneuverable aircraft piloting induces a significant activation of the sympathoadrenomedullary system in pilots, compared to bombing and transport aircrafts. This is particularly common to young pilots with the total flying time of less than 1000 h. It has been recorded that changes in adaptation to the effect of flight factors on the body develop with age and flight experience.     

The comorbidity profile of the Russian Northern Fleet flying personnel disqualified for health reasons

Analysis of 202 medical histories of the Northern Fleet naval pilots suggested the necessity to introduce the criteria of the comorbidity number and comorbidity formulation. It has been found that psychosomatic diseases with stress as a pathogenetic factor remain the leading cause for the medical disqualification of the Northern Fleet naval pilots (up to 60% of the cases). We recommend going from the nosologic level of diagnostics to the physiological level to optimize the aeromedical certification process. Methods of probabilistic modeling of chronic pathology pathogenesis are considered, which may become a basis for programming in the technology for anti-risk rehabilitation of pilots.     

Increased Disease Calls for a Cost-Benefits Review of Marine Reserves

Marine reserves (or No-Take Zones) are implemented to protect species and habitats, with the aim of restoring a balanced ecosystem. Although the benefits of marine reserves are commonly monitored, there is a lack of insight into the potential detriments of such highly protected waters. High population densities attained within reserves may induce negative impacts such as unfavourable trophic cascades and disease outbreaks. Hence, we investigated the health of lobster populations in the UK’s Marine Conservation Zone (MCZ) at Lundy Island. Comparisons were made between the fished, Refuge Zone (RZ) and the un-fished, No-Take Zone (NTZ; marine reserve). We show ostensibly positive effects such as increased lobster abundance and size within the NTZ; however, we also demonstrate apparent negative effects such as increased injury and shell disease. Our findings suggest that robust cost-benefit analyses of marine reserves could improve marine reserve efficacy and subsequent management strategies.     

Climate change and health with an emphasis on interactions with ultraviolet radiation: a review

Climate change is increasingly recognized as a major risk to human health, and health concerns are assuming more importance in international debates on mitigation and adaptation strategies. Health consequences of climate change will occur through direct and indirect routes, and as a result of interactions with other environmental exposures. Heatwaves will become more common and are associated with higher mortality particularly in the elderly and those with pre‐existing cardiovascular and respiratory illnesses. Warmer ambient temperatures will result in more dehydration episodes and increased risks of renal disease and, through effects on pollen seasons, there may be an increase in allergic disease such as asthma and hayfever. Other adverse effects including on air quality, food safety and security and an expanding distribution of some infectious diseases, including vector‐borne diseases, are postulated. A related but separate environmental exposure is that of ultraviolet radiation (UVR). Interactions between climate change and stratospheric ozone (and the causes of ozone depletion) will cause changes to levels of ambient UVR in the future and warmer temperatures are likely to change sun exposure behaviour. Co‐occurring effects on aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems have potential consequences for food safety, quality and supply. Climate change‐related exposures are likely to affect the incidence and distribution of diseases usually considered as caused by UVR exposure; and changes in UVR exposure will modulate the climate change effects on human health. For example, in some regions warmer temperatures due to climate change will encourage more outdoor behaviour, with likely consequences for increasing skin cancer incidence. Although many of the health outcomes of both climate change and the interaction of climate change and UVR exposure are somewhat speculative, there are risks to over‐ or under‐estimations of health risks if synergistic and antagonistic effects of co‐occurring environmental changes are not considered.     

Evaluation of the Blood Circulation System in Pilots of Deck Aircrafts during Long-distance Missions

The goal of this study was to evaluate the state of cardiovascular system in fighter and helicopter pilots during a long-distance naval mission. The study was carried out aboard a heavy aircraft carrier in pilots of deck aircrafts, and its participants were represented by 17 fighter pilots, 9 helicopter pilots, as well as 21 flight operations controllers. The circulation indicators were studied by the method of volumetric compression oscillography, using an APKO-8 oscillometric analyzer of circulation. An AnnaFlash 2000 digital 24-h ECG accumulator was used to monitor the time course of heart rate (HR) in fighter and helicopter pilots flying off the deck of the carrier. The analysis of the central and peripheral hemodynamic indicators has shown a significant predominance of pilots with prehypertension and mild hypertension among the flight personnel of deck-based aviation. Maximal values of systolic, diastolic, and mean blood pressure prevailed in helicopter pilots, while minimal values were characteristic of fighter pilots. Differences in these parameters between helicopter and fighter pilots tended to increase gradually with the duration of the long-distance mission. Maximum HR increases (up to 157 bpm) were recorded in fighter pilots during landing on the carrier deck). The most stressful task for helicopter pilots proved to be the descent of a rescuer in a winch, which was evidenced by the HR values increasing up to 132 bpm. The indicators of adaptation to the conditions of a naval mission varied within wide ranges. Fighter pilots adapted themselves more successfully than helicopter pilots. Hence the conclusion about the necessity to upgrade the system of flight personnel selection and training for operating under the conditions of a long-distance naval mission, as well as the monitoring of the health state of pilots.     

A brave new beef: The US food and drug administration's review of the safety of cloned animal products

To meet its public mandate, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) collected studies on the potential health hazards of eating or drinking cloned food products. Based on an earlier National Academy of Sciences study that, on closer analysis, was not nearly as sanguine, the FDA's report found no evidence of a health risk from the public's ingestion of cloned food products. This article analyzes the risks the FDA considered, and concludes that there is a disconnect between the risks the FDA assessed in these studies and the risks that might arise from cloned food products. The FDA should consider instituting effective tracking mechanisms and other diagnostics that would permit scientists and the public to answer the question of health risks posed by cloned food products.     

Health Consequences of Drought on the Canadian Prairies

Population pressures and expanding agricultural and industrial development, with their resulting environmental degradation and demand for water, are likely to increase drought vulnerability on the Canadian Prairies. Coupled with increases in drought expected under climate change, the health and well-being of prairie populations may be compromised. However, little is known about the health effects of drought in this region or of possible adaptation strategies. This article assesses the available information on the health effects associated with drought and uses this information to develop an ecosystem health framework for outlining how drought may affect the prairie ecosystem and the health and well-being of Canadian Prairie populations. The article identifies multisector mitigation and adaptation strategies for reducing the harmful effects of drought on the prairie ecosystem and its populations. The literature review revealed that drought is associated with crop failure, increased atmospheric dust, and intensifying forest fire frequency, with health effects ranging from respiratory illnesses from inhaling dust or smoke, to mental health concerns arising from economic stress, particularly among farmers. Future research is needed on: the health effects associated with drought more specific to the Prairie region; the mental well-being of farmers and agricultural communities; the health effects from exposure to forest fire haze; and the health effects of reduced water supply and quality. Reducing drought vulnerability requires multisectoral collaboration, starting at the community level, to identify more sustainable water use, diverse health risks of drought, and ways of adapting to drought conditions.     

Consideration of Background Radiation in Ecological Risk Assessments

Background or ambient concentrations are often considered in the evaluation of potential risks to ecological receptors from exposure to hazardous chemicals in the environment. Such an evaluation may be a component of the screening or final risk management process and sets the baseline from which risks contributed by site-related activities can be addressed. Although the process for the evaluation of potential radiological risks to ecological receptors is less formalized than the chemical hazard assessment process, background remains an issue that should be addressed when considering potential site-related impacts. This paper briefly presents the ecological risk assessment approaches used to address background radionuclide concentrations at three United States Department of Defense Facilities. The concepts of total radiation dose, and tolerance and adaptation of populations to radiation are also discussed within the context of background radiation.     

Who is too old for shift work? Developing better criteria

Demographic and social trends in industrialized countries are expected to lead to increasing numbers of older shift workers, raising concerns about possible health and safety risks. For older night workers, the International Labour Organization has recommended options for transferring to day work or early retirement, but few States have adopted these measures. For commercial air transport pilots, the International Civil Aviation Organization has implemented a series of regulatory measures that could manage the risks associated with aging, including a mandatory retirement age, regular medical assessments for fitness to fly, and limits on the duration of duty and rest. Each of these approaches has strengths and weaknesses. The mandatory retirement age is effectively arbitrary, has been controversial, and was recently increased from 60 to 65 yrs for one member of a two-person cockpit crew. Medical assessments offer a more individualized approach, but to improve safety, they must address aspects of health and physical or mental function that affect work performance and safety outcomes. The traditional focus has been on cardiovascular risk factors, although cardiac incapacitation is not a cause of accidents in a two-person cockpit aircraft. On the other hand, while pilot fatigue is an acknowledged cause of accidents, there is currently no requirement to consider issues associated with fatigue or sleep problems in fitness-to-fly medical assessments. Older long-haul pilots show greater sleep fragmentation than their younger colleagues and those in the general population. Sleep becomes more fragmented with increasing age, but the functional significance of this remains unclear. Among younger adults, experimental sleep fragmentation leads to increased sleepiness and degradation of performance and mood. Greater sleep loss is reported by older long-haul pilots, as well as other older shift workers, compared to younger people working similar duty patterns. Experimental sleep restriction causes a degradation of performance and mood that is cumulative and dose-dependent. In addition, a recent large-scale flight simulation study indicates that the duration of sleep obtained by individual pilots is an independent predictor of crew performance in a two-person cockpit. Based on these considerations, we propose that fatigue and sleep-related issues should become a standard part of fitness-for-work medical assessments, particularly for older shift workers. A multi-layered approach is proposed, with a routine structured sleep history leading to referral to specialist sleep services where appropriate. Criteria for specialist referral and medical retirement should be related to the workplace risk represented by an older worker. Additional research is needed to develop and validate sleep-related criteria for assessing fitness for work. For example, a better understanding of the effects of sleep fragmentation on the waking function of older workers might lead to a fragmentation threshold for fitness for work. The potential negative effects of unemployment and early retirement also need to be taken into account when considering the options for managing the occupational health and safety needs of older shift workers.     

Who Is Too Old for Shift Work? Developing Better Criteria

Demographic and social trends in industrialized countries are expected to lead to increasing numbers of older shift workers, raising concerns about possible health and safety risks. For older night workers, the International Labour Organization has recommended options for transferring to day work or early retirement, but few States have adopted these measures. For commercial air transport pilots, the International Civil Aviation Organization has implemented a series of regulatory measures that could manage the risks associated with aging, including a mandatory retirement age, regular medical assessments for fitness to fly, and limits on the duration of duty and rest. Each of these approaches has strengths and weaknesses. The mandatory retirement age is effectively arbitrary, has been controversial, and was recently increased from 60 to 65 yrs for one member of a two‐person cockpit crew. Medical assessments offer a more individualized approach, but to improve safety, they must address aspects of health and physical or mental function that affect work performance and safety outcomes. The traditional focus has been on cardiovascular risk factors, although cardiac incapacitation is not a cause of accidents in a two‐person cockpit aircraft. On the other hand, while pilot fatigue is an acknowledged cause of accidents, there is currently no requirement to consider issues associated with fatigue or sleep problems in fitness‐to‐fly medical assessments. Older long‐haul pilots show greater sleep fragmentation than their younger colleagues and those in the general population. Sleep becomes more fragmented with increasing age, but the functional significance of this remains unclear. Among younger adults, experimental sleep fragmentation leads to increased sleepiness and degradation of performance and mood. Greater sleep loss is reported by older long‐haul pilots, as well as other older shift workers, compared to younger people working similar duty patterns. Experimental sleep restriction causes a degradation of performance and mood that is cumulative and dose‐dependent. In addition, a recent large‐scale flight simulation study indicates that the duration of sleep obtained by individual pilots is an independent predictor of crew performance in a two‐person cockpit. Based on these considerations, we propose that fatigue and sleep‐related issues should become a standard part of fitness‐for‐work medical assessments, particularly for older shift workers. A multi‐layered approach is proposed, with a routine structured sleep history leading to referral to specialist sleep services where appropriate. Criteria for specialist referral and medical retirement should be related to the workplace risk represented by an older worker. Additional research is needed to develop and validate sleep‐related criteria for assessing fitness for work. For example, a better understanding of the effects of sleep fragmentation on the waking function of older workers might lead to a fragmentation threshold for fitness for work. The potential negative effects of unemployment and early retirement also need to be taken into account when considering the options for managing the occupational health and safety needs of older shift workers.     

THE RELATION OF ENZYMATIC ADAPTATION TO THE METABOLISM OF ENDOGENOUS AND EXOGENOUS SUBSTRATES

The source of energy for enzymatic adaptation has been investigated. Aerobically, it is found that the endogenous carbohydrate reserves may be used as such a source. In cells depleted of their reserves, the adaptive substrate itself can be oxidized even while it cannot be fermented, and so can serve as a source of energy for the adaptation to a fermentative mode of utilization. Anaerobically, adaptation may occur at the expense of stored energy-rich compounds, while the reserves and the adaptive substrate are now useless as fuel. Such compounds appear to be more plentiful in young than in old cells. The addition of any fermentable substrate, such as glucose, leads to rapid anaerobic adaptation. Experiments in which maltose-adapted cells are adapted anaerobically to galactose with the aid of a little added maltose, and conversely, show that fermentability is the criterion of usefulness for an exogenous substrate in aiding the adaptive process. None of the endogenous and exogenous energy sources which have been investigated will facilitate adaptation unless the adaptive substrate is present while they are being consumed. The significance of these findings and the adequacy of "activation" hypotheses to explain enzymatic adaptation has been discussed.     

Conception of health: Space-Earth

A new approach for assessing the state of health of cosmonauts, athletes, pilots, drivers, operators, and persons exposed to occupational hazards is considered. It has been created and developed at the Institute of Biomedical Problems of the Russian Academy of Sciences under the direction of Academician A.I. Grigor’ev. The results of the work of the last decade performed in the Program of the Presidium of the Russian Academy of Sciences “Fundamental Sciences for Medicine” are presented. A new system for estimating the functional state of the body under stressful influences is provided. The methodology of remotely studying the influence of environmental factors on health that initiated a new branch of science and public health—environmental telemedicine—has been elaborated. Issues of the further introduction of the new concept of health and technologies of prenosological diagnostics in the practice of public health services are discussed.     

Compensatory Reserves of the Human Body and Population Health under Conditions of Exposure to Chronic Anthropogenic Factors and Prolonged Psychoemotional Stress

Long-term exposure to adverse factors of various origin and intensity is expected to cause a significant decrease in the compensatory reserves and adaptive capacity of the human body. These changes deteriorate the population health status in general. A quantitative method of evaluation of the decrease in the compensatory reserves and adaptive capacity, as well as the resistance to chronic exposure to extreme factors of various origin and intensity, was developed. This method is based on the concept of stress and programmable nonspecific physiological reactions of the human body put forward by H. Selye. Model analytical curves of the time-related decrease in the volume of compensatory reserves and the increase in the probability of development of adaptive disorders and failure of the adaptation process were calculated for the cases of long-term exposure to various stressors (the factors were applied individually or in combination). This method allowed the levels of population health risk induced by various factors to be compared to each other. This is of particular importance under conditions of the existing trend toward an increase in the intensity of anthropogenic stress factors against the background of long-term psychoemotional stress. Statistical data on changes in the rates of morbidity and mortality and the life expectancy of Russian people for the period 1960–2000 were analyzed. The levels of risk of the negative impact on population health induced by various stress factors (radiation, chemical environmental pollution, and long-term psychoemotional stress) were compared to each other.     

Climate Change and Health Research in the Eastern Mediterranean Region

Anthropologically induced climate change, caused by an increased concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, is an emerging threat to human health. Consequences of climate change may affect the prevalence of various diseases and environmental and social maladies that affect population health. In this article, we reviewed the literature on climate change and health in the Eastern Mediterranean Region. This region already faces numerous humanitarian crises, from conflicts to natural hazards and a high burden of disease. Climate change is likely to aggravate these emergencies, necessitating a strengthening of health systems and capacities in the region. However, the existing literature on climate change from the region is sparse and informational gaps stand in the way of regional preparedness and adaptation. Further research is needed to assess climatic changes and related health impacts in the Eastern Mediterranean Region. Such knowledge will allow countries to identify preparedness vulnerabilities, evaluate capacity to adapt to climate change, and develop adaptation strategies to allay the health impacts of climate change.     

The epidemiological significance of Chagas' disease in women.

Little is known about the risks associated with Trypanosoma cruzi infection in non-pregnant and pregnant women. From a limited number of studies it appears that in rural areas, parasite rates and rates of serological positivity are similar in both sexes. Abnormal ECG tracings are consistently more frequent in men suggesting that immunity to T. cruzi may be different in females. Complications arising from Chagas' disease in pregnancy are only infrequently reported. Evidence for increased risk of abortion or prematurity is inconclusive except in cases of congenital infection. Most cases of congenital Chagas' disease have been reported from non-endemic areas and there is a suggestion that parasitemic episodes during pregnancy may influence pregnancy outcome. Preliminary evidence indicates that chronic infection can result in in-utero sensitization via passively acquired maternal antibodies. The review concludes that maternal T. cruzi infection carries risks for the child and these warrant systematic research because of their public health significance.     

Clinical and Analytical Toxicology of Dietary Supplements: A Case Study and a Review of the Literature

The use of dietary supplements has grown dramatically in the last decade. A large number of dietary and herbal supplements escape regulatory and quality control; components of these preparations are poisonous and may contain, among other toxins, heavy metals. Uncontrolled use of dietary and herbal supplements by special populations, such as the military, may therefore pose a health risk. Clinical symptoms are not always properly attributed to dietary supplements; patients often do not mention supplement use to their health care provider. Therefore, a health risk estimate is hard to make on either the individual or the population level. The literature on this issue was reviewed and discussed in the light of a representative clinical-chemical case study. This case study was performed on a host of preparations that were used by one single individual in the military. Both essential (chromium, copper, zinc, and iron) and poisonous (arsenic, lead, and nickel) trace elements were determined using inductively coupled plasma combined with optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES) or with mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Arsenic and lead were detected at exposure levels associated with health risks. These health risks were detected predominantly in hormone-containing supplements and the herbs and botanicals used for performance enhancement. To the extent that this is a representative sample, there is an underestimation of supplement use and supplement risk in the US military, if not in the general population. Since clinical symptoms may be attributed to other causes and, unless patients are specifically asked, health care providers may not be aware of their patients' use of dietary supplements, a strong support of laboratory diagnostics, such as a toxicological screening of blood or urine, is required. In addition, screening of the preparations themselves may be advised.     

Lateral Preferences as Possible Phenotypic Predictors of the Reserves of the Cardiovascular System and the Features of Sensorimotor Integration in Climbers

The lateral preferences of the hands, the reserves of the cardiovascular system and the features of sensorimotor integration in mountain climbers as possible predictors of adaptation to extreme factors of the external environment have been investigated. The subjects were 15 climbers of high class (men aged 25.5–62.8 years). We used the following methods: reflexometric technique ReBFB (complex sensorimotor reaction in the model of go/no-go, computer simulation according to Chernikov); the assessment of lateral preferences using the standard samples; the orthostatic test (with the recording of the heart rate and evaluation of adaptive reserves based on the indices of mathematical analysis of the cardiac rhythm in the transition period according to a technique by Riftin). Sensorimotor integration was performed under normal conditions and under normobaric hypoxia. All indicators were correlated with the age and proficiency of the climbers. We observed no statistically significant correlations between age and the reserves of the cardiovascular system in the group of climbers. Reflexometry in normoxic conditions showed an improvement in the orientation of subjects in the sensory flow as compared with the initial level. The sensorimotor integration (as a response of sensorimotor responses) was more stable during hypoxia as compared with the same indices in normoxia. Noticeable correlation was observed between the results of the humeral test and the reserves of the cardiovascular system defined by orthostatic hypotension: the reserves were higher in the subjects with a higher level of left-hand preference. The regulation of the autonomic nervous system is correlated with left-handedness, which results in more effective adaptation to the high altitude in left-handers. The parameter of handedness can be used as a phenotypic predictor of the level of the cardiovascular system reserves in climbers. It is suggested that the factor of hypoxia with small exposure has a stimulating effect on sensorimotor integration in climbers.     

Stochastic model for analysis of longitudinal data on aging and mortality

Aging-related changes in a human organism follow dynamic regularities, which contribute to the observed age patterns of incidence and mortality curves. An organism's 'optimal' (normal) physiological state changes with age, affecting the values of risks of disease and death. The resistance to stresses, as well as adaptive capacity, declines with age. An exposure to improper environment results in persisting deviation of individuals' physiological (and biological) indices from their normal state (due to allostatic adaptation), which, in turn, increases chances of disease and death. Despite numerous studies investigating these effects, there is no conceptual framework, which would allow for putting all these findings together, and analyze longitudinal data taking all these dynamic connections into account. In this paper we suggest such a framework, using a new version of stochastic process model of aging and mortality. Using this model, we elaborated a statistical method for analyses of longitudinal data on aging, health and longevity and tested it using different simulated data sets. The results show that the model may characterize complicated interplay among different components of aging-related changes in humans and that the model parameters are identifiable from the data.