Drp1的调控对PINK1突变转基因果蝇的保护作用

帕金森病（PD）是以黑质致密部多巴胺神经元选择性减少和胞浆内路易小体的形成为特征的神经退行性疾病。研究发现,PTEN诱导激酶1(PINK1)基因突变导致家族性早发型帕金森病的发生。在转基因果蝇中,PINK1功能丢失导致间接飞行肌缺陷,线粒体结构、功能障碍,多巴胺神经元丢失。本研究在PINK1突变PD转基因果蝇中,进行发动蛋白相关蛋白1（Drp1）过表达和敲低,探索Drp1对PD转基因果蝇的保护作用及其可能机制。本研究选用MHC-Gal4/UAS系统的PD转基因果蝇模型,特异性启动PINK1B9基因于果蝇肌肉组织中表达;运用Drp1基因过表达和RNA干扰干预PINK1B9转基因果蝇,研究其对PD转基因果蝇的作用。结果显示,不论过表达Drp1还是Drp1敲低均可挽救PINK1突变转基因果蝇,降低翅膀异常率,改善飞行能力,恢复间接飞行肌排列,调节线粒体形态,提高ATP生成量,上调NDUFS3蛋白表达水平。本文结果提示,Drp1的调控挽救PINK1突变转基因果蝇与线粒体呼吸链有关。     

研究报告: 沉默信息调节因子2对SCA3/MJD转基因果蝇的神经保护作用及其与自噬的相关性研究

为探讨沉默信息调节因子2(Sir2)在SCA3/MJD发病机制中的作用．选用GMR-GAL4 和Nrv2-GAL4驱动子,利用经典的GAL4-UAS系统,将含有78 个CAG 重复扩增的ataxin-3 蛋白片段(MJDtr-Q78)分别在果蝇眼睛和运动神经元内选择性表达,构建GMR-GAL4/UAS 和Nrv2-GAL4/UAS 系统SCA3/MJD 转基因果蝇模型,然后分别在抑制和不抑制自噬的情况下,使Sir2在SCA3/MJD 转基因果蝇眼睛和运动神经元内过表达．结果发现,Sir2过表达明显抑制了SCA3/MJD 转基因果蝇眼睛视网膜光感受神经元变性,显著改善了果蝇运动能力,而在自噬被抑制后,Sir2的作用效果明显减弱,表明Sir2对SCA3/MJD 转基因果蝇具有神经保护作用,而这种神经保护作用需要依赖自噬的功能．     

Hsp22对SCA3/MJD转基因果蝇的神经保护作用研究

为了探讨Hsp22在SCA3/MJD发病机制中的作用．选用GMR-GAL4和elav-GAL4驱动子,利用经典的GAL4-UAS系统,将含有78个CAG重复扩增的ataxin-3蛋白片段(MJDtr-Q78)分别在果蝇眼睛和神经系统选择性表达,构建GMR-GAL4/UAS和elav-GAL4/UAS系统SCA3/MJD转基因果蝇模型, 然后利用遗传学方法和热休克反应使Hsp22在SCA3/ MJD转基因果蝇眼睛和神经系统以不同水平过表达．结果表明,Hsp22过表达显著抑制了MJDtr-Q78蛋白的神经毒性,果蝇眼睛视网膜光感受神经元变性明显缓解,果蝇存活能力也显著提高．Hsp22对SCA3/MJD具有保护作用,增强Hsp22表达对SCA3/MJD可能是一种潜在的治疗方法．     

PINK1/parkin通路调控线粒体自噬机制的研究进展

线粒体自噬指细胞通过自噬机制选择性除去损伤或多余的线粒体。真核生物通过线粒体自噬调控线粒体质量,维持供能细胞器的功能。大量研究表明,帕金森病相关基因PINK1和parkin可通过线粒体自噬参与并维持线粒体功能。PINK1与parkin能协同特异性识别损伤的线粒体,PINK1作为线粒体质量调控的探测器被活化,此过程中泛素化酶和去泛素化酶对维持parkin活性及线粒体自噬的效率有重要作用。本文主要总结PINK1/parkin通路在线粒体自噬中的功能与作用。     

Parkin、PINK1、DJ-1和线粒体功能障碍与帕金森病

帕金森病(Parkinson’s disese,PD)是一种常见的神经退行性疾病,但到目前为止发病机制尚不明确,环境和遗传等因素与其发病有密切关系。研究表明,蛋白质异常积聚(泛素/蛋白酶体途径)和线粒体氧化损伤(线粒体途径),可能是导致PD患者发病的关键分子机制。Parkin、PINK1和DJ-1等基因突变与常染色体隐性的家族性PD有关,这些相关基因编码的蛋白对于维持线粒体形态和功能起着重要的作用。本文将主要从Parkin、PINK1、DJ-1和线粒体功能障碍与帕金森病的关系进行综述。     

帕金森病相关蛋白PINK1和Parkin通过降解Miro影响线粒体运动

帕金森病是一种常见的神经退行性疾病,发病机制尚不清楚,线粒体功能障碍是可能的原因之一。帕金森病相关蛋白PINK1和Parkin均被证明影响线粒体功能和形态,并参与线粒体质量监控。2011年11月《细胞》杂志 （Cell）147期 发表了题为《PINK1和Parkin导致Miro磷酸化降解和线粒体运动阻滞》的文章,发现PINK1 / Parkin 通路可以作用于定位在线粒体外膜的线粒体移动相关蛋白Miro,PINK1直接磷酸化Miro,Parkin参与Miro降解,使受损线粒体脱离微管,从而阻滞线粒体运动。作者猜测这一过程能够隔离受损线粒体,避免了受损线粒体在细胞中的扩散。该研究深入探讨了PINK1和Parkin相互作用机制,揭示了线粒体质量控制系统如何直接调控线粒体运输,提出了受损线粒体的不正常运输可能是PD的致病原因。     

人PINK1-shRNA载体的构建及对神经母细胞瘤细胞线粒体的影响

摘要 目的：构建筛选人源靶向特异PINK1-shRNA敲减质粒,转染神经母细胞瘤SH-SY5Y细胞并验证该质粒转染后对PINK1基因的敲减效率,观察对细胞线粒体形态的影响。方法：构建两对人源PINK1-shRNA序列(编号分别为PINK1-shRNA-39和PINK1-shRNA-42),将这2对干扰序列连接在载体上形成重组载体,经测序验证后,将空载体和两对敲减质粒分别转染SH-SY5Y细胞,获得基因敲减的细胞模型,用CCK-8法检测细胞的存活率,用荧光定量PCR方法确定PINK1基因的敲减效率,用蛋白质免疫印迹法验证细胞内PINK1的表达水平是否发生改变,用激光共聚焦显微镜观察线粒体的形态是否发生了改变。结果：我们提取的质粒,经测序结果显示,质粒载体构建成功;转染细胞后,CCK-8 法检测细胞存活率发生了降低,与正常组比较,PINK1-shRNA-39和PINK1-shRNA-42敲减质粒组,细胞的存活率分别降低了13.7%（P＜0.05）和14.1%（P＜0.05）;荧光定量PCR结果显示,与正常组相比,PINK1-shRNA-39组和PINK1-shRNA-42组敲减质粒转染的细胞内PINK1基因的表达分别降低了24.1%（P＜0.01）和36.7%（P＜0.01）;蛋白质印迹法结果显示,与正常组相比,两对质粒分别转染细胞后,PINK1-shRNA-39和PINK1-shRNA-42敲减质粒转染的细胞内PINK1蛋白的表达水平降低,差异有统计学意义(P＜0.01),PINK1-shRNA-42敲减质粒转染的细胞内PINK1蛋白的表达水平有效降低更明显;与正常组比较,激光共聚焦显微镜观察到基因敲减两组细胞的线粒体部分发生断裂,碎片较多,基因敲减两组的线粒体的形态因子显著降低,差异有统计学意义（P＜ 0.01）。结论：成功构建了人源的PINK1基因敲减的质粒,并将敲减的质粒成功转染至SH-SY5Y 细胞中,细胞内PINK1基因的mRNA和蛋白的表达水平降低,且细胞线粒体的形态发生了改变。     

大鼠心肌缺血再灌注损伤模型线粒体自噬变化的研究

目的:观察大鼠心肌缺血再灌注损伤模型不同时间点线粒体及线粒体自噬的变化。方法:成年雄性SD大鼠40只,随机分为假手术对照组(sham组):开胸不进行冠状动脉左前降支(Left anterior descending coronary artery,LAD)血流阻断;缺血再灌注组2h组(I/R 2 h组)、24 h组(I/R 24 h组)及48 h组(I/R 48 h组),以上3组均阻断LAD 30 min,分别于再灌注后2 h、24 h、48 h观察心肌ATP含量,线粒体膜电位水平变化,透射电镜下观察线粒体及线粒体自噬超微结构变化,western blot法测定线粒体自噬蛋白PINK1、Parkin、p62、LC3B及线粒体膜蛋白Tom20表达水平。结果:与对照组相比,线粒体膜电位水平及心肌组织ATP含量于再灌注2 h开始下降,24 h下降最显著,48 h有所改善,线粒体超微结构损伤再灌注24 h最为明显,48 h有所改善。PINK1、Parkin、p62蛋白表达于损伤后2 h增强,于再灌注后24 h升高最显著,持续至48 h,LC3BⅡ表达于损伤后24 h增强,同样持续至48 h。透射电镜下可见线粒体自噬体于再灌注后24 h明显增多,并持续至48 h。结论:大鼠心肌缺血再灌注损伤后,线粒体功能与形态损伤以损伤后24 h最为显著,至损伤后48 h后好转;线粒体自噬水平升高以损伤后24 h最为显著,且维持至损伤后48 h,提示两者之间可能存在关联。     

PINK1/Parkin介导的线粒体自噬

线粒体自噬（mitochondrial autophagy, or mitophagy）指的是细胞通过自吞噬作用,降解与清除受损线粒体或者多余线粒体,其对整个线粒体网络的功能完整性和细胞存活具有重要作用。线粒体自噬过程受多种途径调控,PINK1/Parkin通路是其中的一条,其异常与多种疾病的发生密切相关,如心血管疾病、肿瘤和帕金森病等。在去极化线粒体中,磷酸酶及张力蛋白同源物(PTEN)诱导的激酶1（PTEN-induced kinase 1,PINK1）作为受损线粒体的分子传感器,触发线粒体自噬的起始信号,并将Parkin募集至线粒体;Parkin作为线粒体自噬信号的“增强子”,通过对线粒体蛋白质进一步泛素化介导自噬信号的扩大;去泛素化酶和PTEN-long蛋白参与调控该过程,并对维持线粒体稳态具有重要作用。本文主要对PINK1与Parkin蛋白质的分子结构和其介导线粒体自噬发生的分子机制,以及参与调控该途径的关键蛋白质进行综述,为进一步研究以线粒体自噬缺陷为特征的疾病治疗提供理论基础。     

红景天苷通过PINK1-Parkin 通路在MPP+诱导的SH-SY5Y细胞中维持线粒体形态和功能

目的:研究红景天苷(Salidroside,Sal)对在MPP+诱导SH-SY5Y细胞线粒体形态和功能的影响及其机制。方法:采用3-(4,5-二甲基噻唑-2)-2,5-二苯基四氮唑溴盐(3-(4,5-dimethyl-2-thiazolyl)-2,5-diphenyl-2-H-tetrazolium bromide,MTT)检测细胞活性,Mito Tracker Red CMXRos进行线粒体染色,四甲基罗丹明乙酯(Tetramethylrhodamine ethyl ester,TMRE)检测线粒体膜电位,Western blot检测PINK1和Parkin蛋白表达水平。结果:单纯Sal处理24 h对细胞活性、线粒体形态和MMP无影响(P0.05)。MPP+(500μM)处理SH-SY5Y细胞24 h后,与正常组比较,细胞活性、MMP水平均降低,线粒体长度减短(P0.01),并发生碎片化。Sal(25μM)预处理24 h可以显著抑制MPP+诱导的细胞活性降低(P0.01),并维持线粒体长度和增加MMP水平(P0.01)。而且,Sal(25μM)预处理24 h可以显著恢复MPP+诱导的PINK1和Parkin蛋白表达水平下降(P0.01)。结论:体外实验证实Sal可以保护MPP+诱导的SH-SY5Y细胞活性降低、线粒体形态和功能异常,而PINK1-Parkin通路可能是其机制之一,为进一步临床开发Sal治疗PD的新药提供实验依据。     

The Complex I Subunit NDUFA10 Selectively Rescues Drosophila pink1 Mutants through a Mechanism Independent of Mitophagy

Mutations in PINK1, a mitochondrially targeted serine/threonine kinase, cause autosomal recessive Parkinson''s disease (PD). Substantial evidence indicates that PINK1 acts with another PD gene, parkin, to regulate mitochondrial morphology and mitophagy. However, loss of PINK1 also causes complex I (CI) deficiency, and has recently been suggested to regulate CI through phosphorylation of NDUFA10/ND42 subunit. To further explore the mechanisms by which PINK1 and Parkin influence mitochondrial integrity, we conducted a screen in Drosophila cells for genes that either phenocopy or suppress mitochondrial hyperfusion caused by pink1 RNAi. Among the genes recovered from this screen was ND42. In Drosophila pink1 mutants, transgenic overexpression of ND42 or its co-chaperone sicily was sufficient to restore CI activity and partially rescue several phenotypes including flight and climbing deficits and mitochondrial disruption in flight muscles. Here, the restoration of CI activity and partial rescue of locomotion does not appear to have a specific requirement for phosphorylation of ND42 at Ser-250. In contrast to pink1 mutants, overexpression of ND42 or sicily failed to rescue any Drosophila parkin mutant phenotypes. We also find that knockdown of the human homologue, NDUFA10, only minimally affecting CCCP-induced mitophagy, and overexpression of NDUFA10 fails to restore Parkin mitochondrial-translocation upon PINK1 loss. These results indicate that the in vivo rescue is due to restoring CI activity rather than promoting mitophagy. Our findings support the emerging view that PINK1 plays a role in regulating CI activity separate from its role with Parkin in mitophagy.     

PINK1 as a molecular checkpoint in the maintenance of mitochondrial function and integrity

Parkinson's disease (PD), the most prevalent neurodegenerative movement disorder, is characterized by an age-dependent selective loss of dopaminergic (DA) neurons. Although most PD cases are sporadic, more than 20 responsible genes in familial cases were identified recently. Genetic studies using Drosophila models demonstrate that PINK1, a mitochondrial kinase encoded by a PD-linked gene PINK1, is critical for maintaining mitochondrial function and integrity. This suggests that mitochondrial dysfunction is the main cause of PD pathogenesis. Further genetic and cell biological studies revealed that PINK1 recruits Parkin, an E3 ubiquitin ligase encoded by another PD-linked gene parkin, to mitochondria and regulates the mitochondrial remodeling process via the Parkin-mediated ubiquitination of various mitochondrial proteins. PINK1 also directly phosphorylates the mitochondrial proteins Miro and TRAP1, subsequently inhibiting mitochondrial transport and mitochondrial oxidative damage, respectively. Moreover, recent Drosophila genetic analyses demonstrate that the neuroprotective molecules Sir2 and FOXO specifically complement mitochondrial dysfunction and DA neuron loss in PINK1 null mutants, suggesting that Sir2 and FOXO protect mitochondria and DA neurons downstream of PINK1. Collectively, these recent results suggest that PINK1 plays multiple roles in mitochondrial quality control by regulating its mitochondrial, cytosolic, and nuclear targets.     

The PINK1-Parkin pathway is involved in the regulation of mitochondrial remodeling process

The two Parkinson’s disease (PD) genes, PTEN-induced kinase 1 (PINK1) and parkin, are linked in a common pathway which affects mitochondrial integrity and function. However, it is still not known what this pathway does in the mitochondria. Therefore, we investigated its physiological function in Drosophila. Because Drosophila PINK1 and parkin mutants show changes in mitochondrial morphology in both indirect flight muscles and dopaminergic neurons, we here investigated whether the PINK1-Parkin pathway genetically interacts with the regulators of mitochondrial fusion and fission such as Drp1, which promotes mitochondrial fission, and Opa1 or Marf, which induces mitochondrial fusion. Surprisingly, DrosophilaPINK1 and parkin mutant phenotypes were markedly suppressed by overexpression of Drp1 or downregulation of Opa1 or Marf, indicating that the PINK1-Parkin pathway regulates mitochondrial remodeling process in the direction of promoting mitochondrial fission. Therefore, we strongly suggest that mitochondrial fusion and fission process could be a prominent therapeutic target for the treatment of PD.     

Expression of Expanded Polyglutamine Protein Induces Behavioral Changes in Drosophila (Polyglutamine-Induced Changes in Drosophila)

Spinocerebellar ataxia type-3 or Machado-Joseph disease (SCA3/MJD) is an autosomal dominant neurodegenerative disease caused by triplet nucleotide expansion. The expansion of the polyglutamine tract near the C terminus of the MJD1 gene product, ataxin-3, above a threshold of 40 glutamine repeats causes neuronal loss and degeneration. The expanded ataxin-3 forms aggregates, and nuclear inclusions, within neurons, possibly due to the misfolding of mutant proteins. Here we report upon the behavioral test changes related to truncated and expanded forms of MJD protein (MJDtr) in Drosophila, and show that expanded MJDtr, when expressed in the nervous system, causes characteristic locomotor dysfunction and anosmia. This phenomenon has not been previously reported in humans or in transgenic Drosophila models. In addition, the in vivo expression of the antiapoptotic gene bcl-2 showed no evidence of ameliorating the deleterious effect of MJDtr-Q78s, either in the eye or in the nervous system. The study shows that such Drosophila transgenic models express olfactory dysfunction and ataxic behavior as observed in human patients.     

Mitochondrial processing peptidase regulates PINK1 processing, import and Parkin recruitment

Mutations in phosphatase and tensin homologue-induced kinase 1 (PINK1) cause recessively inherited Parkinson's disease (PD), a neurodegenerative disorder linked to mitochondrial dysfunction. In healthy mitochondria, PINK1 is rapidly degraded in a process involving both mitochondrial proteases and the proteasome. However, when mitochondrial import is compromised by depolarization, PINK1 accumulates on the mitochondrial surface where it recruits the PD-linked E3 ubiquitin ligase Parkin from the cytosol, which in turn mediates the autophagic destruction of the dysfunctional organelles. Using an unbiased RNA-mediated interference (RNAi)-based screen, we identified four mitochondrial proteases, mitochondrial processing peptidase (MPP), presenilin-associated rhomboid-like protease (PARL), m-AAA and ClpXP, involved in PINK1 degradation. We find that PINK1 turnover is particularly sensitive to even modest reductions in MPP levels. Moreover, PINK1 cleavage by MPP is coupled to import such that reducing MPP activity induces PINK1 accumulation at the mitochondrial surface, leading to Parkin recruitment and mitophagy. These results highlight a new role for MPP in PINK1 import and mitochondrial quality control via the PINK1–Parkin pathway.     

Mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress contribute to the pathogenesis of spinocerebellar ataxia type 12 (SCA12)

Spinal cerebellar ataxia type 12 (SCA12) has been attributed to the elevated expression of ppp2r2b. To better elucidate the pathomechanism of the neuronal disorder and to search for a pharmacological treatment, Drosophila models of SCA12 were generated by overexpression of a human ppp2r2b and its Drosophila homolog tws. Ectopic expression of ppp2r2b or tws caused various pathological features, including neurodegeneration, apoptosis, and shortened life span. More detailed analysis revealed that elevated ppp2r2b and tws induced fission of mitochondria accompanied by increases in cytosolic reactive oxygen species (ROS), cytochrome c, and caspase 3 activity. Transmission electron microscopy revealed that fragmented mitochondria with disrupted cristae were engulfed by autophagosomes in photoreceptor neurons of flies overexpressing tws. Additionally, transgenic flies were more susceptible to oxidative injury induced by paraquat. By contrast, ectopic Drosophila Sod2 expression and antioxidant treatment reduced ROS and caspase 3 activity and extended the life span of the SCA12 fly model. In summary, our study demonstrates that oxidative stress induced by mitochondrial dysfunction plays a causal role in SCA12, and reduction of ROS is a potential therapeutic intervention for this neuropathy.     

Reduction of protein translation and activation of autophagy protect against PINK1 pathogenesis in Drosophila melanogaster

Mutations in PINK1 and Parkin cause familial, early onset Parkinson's disease. In Drosophila melanogaster, PINK1 and Parkin mutants show similar phenotypes, such as swollen and dysfunctional mitochondria, muscle degeneration, energy depletion, and dopaminergic (DA) neuron loss. We previously showed that PINK1 and Parkin genetically interact with the mitochondrial fusion/fission pathway, and PINK1 and Parkin were recently proposed to form a mitochondrial quality control system that involves mitophagy. However, the in vivo relationships among PINK1/Parkin function, mitochondrial fission/fusion, and autophagy remain unclear; and other cellular events critical for PINK1 pathogenesis remain to be identified. Here we show that PINK1 genetically interacted with the protein translation pathway. Enhanced translation through S6K activation significantly exacerbated PINK1 mutant phenotypes, whereas reduction of translation showed suppression. Induction of autophagy by Atg1 overexpression also rescued PINK1 mutant phenotypes, even in the presence of activated S6K. Downregulation of translation and activation of autophagy were already manifested in PINK1 mutant, suggesting that they represent compensatory cellular responses to mitochondrial dysfunction caused by PINK1 inactivation, presumably serving to conserve energy. Interestingly, the enhanced PINK1 mutant phenotype in the presence of activated S6K could be fully rescued by Parkin, apparently in an autophagy-independent manner. Our results reveal complex cellular responses to PINK1 inactivation and suggest novel therapeutic strategies through manipulation of the compensatory responses.     

The loss of PGAM5 suppresses the mitochondrial degeneration caused by inactivation of PINK1 in Drosophila

PTEN-induced kinase 1 (PINK1), which is required for mitochondrial homeostasis, is a gene product responsible for early-onset Parkinson's disease (PD). Another early onset PD gene product, Parkin, has been suggested to function downstream of the PINK1 signalling pathway based on genetic studies in Drosophila. PINK1 is a serine/threonine kinase with a predicted mitochondrial target sequence and a probable transmembrane domain at the N-terminus, while Parkin is a RING-finger protein with ubiquitin-ligase (E3) activity. However, how PINK1 and Parkin regulate mitochondrial activity is largely unknown. To explore the molecular mechanism underlying the interaction between PINK1 and Parkin, we biochemically purified PINK1-binding proteins from human cultured cells and screened the genes encoding these binding proteins using Drosophila PINK1 (dPINK1) models to isolate a molecule(s) involved in the PINK1 pathology. Here we report that a PINK1-binding mitochondrial protein, PGAM5, modulates the PINK1 pathway. Loss of Drosophila PGAM5 (dPGAM5) can suppress the muscle degeneration, motor defects, and shorter lifespan that result from dPINK1 inactivation and that can be attributed to mitochondrial degeneration. However, dPGAM5 inactivation fails to modulate the phenotypes of parkin mutant flies. Conversely, ectopic expression of dPGAM5 exacerbated the dPINK1 and Drosophila parkin (dParkin) phenotypes. These results suggest that PGAM5 negatively regulates the PINK1 pathway related to maintenance of the mitochondria and, furthermore, that PGAM5 acts between PINK1 and Parkin, or functions independently of Parkin downstream of PINK1.