Hormonal Regulation of Pedicel Abscission in Begonia Flower Buds

In order to analyse the hormonal regulation of flower bud shedding in Begonia, levels of indoleacetic acid (IAA), abscisic acid (ABA) and ethylene were determined in buds and pedicels. The translocation and metabolism of ¹⁴C-labeled IAA in pedicel segments were also studied. In a monoecious Begonia fuchsioides hybrid, abscising male flower buds contain about 1% of the IAA present in non-abscising female flowers. In a male Begonia davisii hybrid, the seasonal variation in bud drop coincides with changes in the IAA content of the buds, while also the release of IAA from the bud to the pedicel is hampered. Abscission zones of these pedicels always contain abscission promoting ethylene concentrations. The tissue is prevented from responding with abscission by IAA from the flower buds. The buds also contain ABA but without influencing abscission considerably. Pretreatment with ethylene or ABA does not affect IAA transport in pedicel segments. The rate of this transport is 4–6 mm × h^–1:; the capacity increases with the transverse area. In young segments, IAA is decarboxylated and also otherwise metabolized.     

大豆花荚败育期间的植物激素变化

大豆开花结荚期,不同发育阶段的幼蕾与花荚的脱落率不同,其中以花后5d内的幼荚脱落最严重。与败育花荚相比,正常花荚中的干物质积累量均较高。细胞分裂素(DHZRs,ZRs,iPA)含量也较高,花后3～5d的幼荚中表现更明显。脱落酸(ABA)则是以败育幼蕾及花后3～5d的幼荚中含量较高。不同发育阶段的大豆生殖器官中,正常开放花中的玉米赤霉烯酮(ZEN)含量最高。     

大豆花荚败育期间的植物激素变化

大豆开花结荚期,不同发育阶段的幼蕾与花荚的脱落率不同,其中以花后５ｄ内的幼荚脱落最严重。与败育花荚相比,正常花荚中的干物质积累量均较高。细胞分裂素（ＤＨＺＲｓ,ＺＲｓ,ｉＰＡ）含量也较高,花后３～５ｄ的幼荚中表现更明显。脱落酸（ＡＢＡ）则是以败育幼蕾及花后３～５ｄ的幼荚中含量较高。不同发育阶段的大豆生殖器官中,正常开放花中的玉米赤霉烯酮（ＺＥＮ）含量最高     

COMPARATIVE EFFECTS OF GIBBERELLIN AND INDOLE COMPOUNDS ON THE INDUCTION OF PARTHENOCARPY IN SEXUALLY INCOMPATIBLE PERESKIA ACULEATA

Sachar , R. C. (U. Delhi, India.) Comparative effects of gibberellin and indole compounds on the induction of parthenocarpy in sexually incompatible Pereskia aculeata. Amer. Jour. Bot. 49(9): 913–917. Illus. 1962.—The effects of indoleacetic acid (IAA), indolebutyric acid (IBA), gibberellin (G) and gibberellic acid (GA) were studied on the fruit growth of the sexually incompatible Pereskia. Under natural conditions, this plant did not produce any fruits and seeds, and the flowers abscised a week after anthesis. IAA (50–500 ppm) delayed the formation of an abscission layer by another 2 weeks, but it was ineffective in inducing parthenocarpy. IBA (50–500 ppm) induced fruit-set in only 15% of the flowers. Best response was achieved by G (100–500 ppm), or GA (100–500 ppm), which gave 100% fruit-set. The effect of GA in inducing parthenocarpy was not inhibited when used in conjunction with IAA. Maximum size of the fruits was obtained with 2 sprayings of GA, and subsequent sprays were of no consequence. Further, fruit size was the largest when GA or G was sprayed at anthesis, or on old flower buds, but it was much less when the chemicals were sprayed on young flower buds. There was no stimulation of the growth of ovules; instead, a translucent mucilaginous placental tissue developed within the cavity of the fruit wall. Attempts were made to culture ovules and the placental tissue on artificial nutrient medium, but without success.     

Influence of water deficits on the abscisic Acid and indole-3-acetic Acid contents of cotton flower buds and flowers

A field experiment was conducted during the summer of 1988 to test the hypothesis that water deficit affects the abscisic acid (ABA) and indole acetic acid (IAA) concentrations in cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) flower buds in ways that predispose young fruits (bolls) that subsequently develop from them to increased abscission rates. Water deficit had little effect on the ABA content of flower buds but increased the ABA content of flowers as much as 66%. Water deficit decreased the concentrations of free and conjugated IAA in flower buds during the first irrigation cycle but increased them during the second cycle. Flowers contained much less IAA than buds. Water deficit slightly increased the conjugated IAA content of flowers but had no effect on the concentration of free IAA in flowers. Because water deficit slightly increased the ABA content but did not decrease the IAA content of flowers, any carry-over effect of water deficit on young boll shedding might have been caused by changes in ABA but not from changes in IAA.     

Flower formation in vitro in a quantitative short-day tobacco: interrelation between photoperiod and infructescence development

The flowering response of thin layers excised from branch internodes of Nicotiana tabacum cv. Maryland Catterton (quantitative short-day plant for induction) was studied under three photoperiodic treatments. The explants were excised from inflorescences bearing flowers only, flowers and green fruits, or from infructescences with green fruits only. The aim of the study was to investigate the post-inductive photoperiodic effects on in vitro flower bud formation in a quantitative short-day tobacco and the relation with infructescence development. Short days quantitatively enhanced the flower bud regeneration capacities of explants in all stages of development, both as number of explants induced to produce flowers and as mean number of flowers per explant. There was no significant difference in flower bud formation on explants of the first two stages, which produced much more flowers than those of the third stage. Observations in planta showed that, during the 20 days separating the second stage from the first stage, there was no significant difference in the number of floral buds and flowers present on the inflorescence; however, the branch internodes lengthened, as did the floral buds and flowers. During the 10 days leading to the third stage, the number of capsules did not change significantly, but a high rate of floral abscission occurred. The present results show that in Nicotiana tabacum cv. Maryland Catterton short day quantitatively controls not only the inductive step of the flowering process, but also affects the capacity to regenerate flower buds during the late post-inductive phases. The responsiveness to the photoperiodic signal decreases only when the plant exhibits only fruits.     

The Role of Abscisic Acid in Flower Abscission of Lupinus luteus

The role of abscisic acid in the control of flower abscission in Lupinus luteus L. was examined. Using a modified extraction and purification technique, endogenous abscisic acid levels in the upper flowers of an inflorescence were found to increase markedly some days before abscission could be detected. When abscisic acid was injected into flower-bearing nodes or fed via the roots, no increase in the abscission rate was obtained at any position in the flowerhead. Application of abscisic acid to only the leaves resulted in a marked increase in flower abscission. The role of abscisic acid per se as a primary controlling factor of flower abscission in yellow lupin is questioned.     

Loss of flower bud vigour in the Mediterranean shrub,Cistus albidus L. at advanced developmental stages

To better understand aging in perennials, age‐related changes in the physiology of leaves and flower buds of the Mediterranean shrub, Cistus albidus L. were evaluated. Two groups of different ages (5 and 10 years old), both at advanced developmental stages but of similar size, were compared. Total plant biomass, biomass produced per apical meristem and levels of cytokinins, abscisic acid and jasmonic acid in leaves and flower buds, as well as flower production, were measured. No differences in plant size, vegetative growth rates and levels of phytohormones in leaves were observed between 5‐ and 10‐year‐old plants. However, they showed significant differences in flower bud development; the older plants having reduced vigour, with 29.6% of flowers reaching anthesis compared to 52.5% in the younger plants. Furthermore, endogenous concentrations of zeatin and abscisic acid in flower buds at stage I (start of flower organ formation) were 61% and 41%, respectively, smaller in 10‐ than in 5‐year‐old plants. At stage II (with all flower organs formed), zeatin and abscisic acid concentrations decreased by ca. 90% and 80%, respectively, but differences between age groups were still evident (60% and 29% for zeatin and abscisic acid, respectively). Jasmonic acid levels in flower buds decreased by 80% from stage I to II, but did not differ between age groups. Despite reductions in flower bud vigour, total number of flowers per individual was not significantly different between age groups, so that an age‐related loss in reproductive vigour at the organ level did not lead to a decrease in flower production at the whole plant level.     

The effect of LAB 173711 and ethephon on time of flowering and cold hardiness of peach flower buds

Peach flowers are often killed during bloom by spring frosts. LAB 173711, a compound with abscisic (ABA)-like activity, and ethephon delayed flowering in peach trees. In greenhouse experiments, LAB 173711, at concentrations of 10^?3–10^?2 M, was most effective in delaying bloom when applied after a 5°C cold storage period, rather than before the dormancy breaking treatment. In contrast, ethephon delayed bloom most effectively when applied before 5°C cold storage; ethephon caused flower bud abscission when treatments were made after the chilling requirement had been satisfied. In field experiments, ethephon delayed flowering by 6–7 days, which reduced bud injury after a spring frost during bloom. No flower bud injury was found on ethephon-treated trees after temperatures of ?4.3°C; whereas without ethephon 25% of the flower buds were frost damaged. LAB 173711 delayed the time to 50% bloom by 2–3 days. However, this was not long enough to avoid low-temperature injury to the flower buds.     

FACTORS LIMITING FRUIT AND SEED PRODUCTION OF A TEMPERATE SHRUB,STAPHYLEA TRIFOLIA L. (STAPHYLEACEAE)

Staphylea trifolia L., the bladdernut, is a self-incompatible temperate woodland shrub that flowers in May in Illinois. Factors limiting reproduction were studied at four levels: 1) Seeds/fruit. Seed production in open-pollinated fruit was frequently limited by too few fertilized ovules. Seed production in hand-cross-pollinated fruit was limited by resources or dispersal constraints: seed abortion rates were higher in hand-cross-pollinated fruits than in open-pollinated fruits. 2) Fruits/flower and 3) fruits/inflorescence. The number of fruits set and matured per flower and per infloresence in the open-pollinated treatment was limited by the number of flowers naturally cross-pollinated. In hand-cross-pollinated inflorescences, fruit set was not limited by resources even though fruit set was ten times greater than in the open-pollinated treatment. Evidence that resources limited fruit maturation in the hand-cross-pollinated inflorescences was equivocal. In hand-cross-pollinated flowers, fruit set was lowest when cold nights followed pollination, suggesting that cool temperatures limited postpollination physiological processes. 4) Fruits/individual. Early-flowering individuals matured fewer fruits than later-flowering individuals. Within the latter group, fruit production increased with plant size, although a relatively small individual matured the maximum number of fruits. Flowering phenologies and size of individuals varied among patches, resulting in differential reproductive success of patches.     

Partitioning of [14C]sucrose and Acid Invertase Activity in Reproductive Organs of Pepper Plants in Relation to Their Abscission Under Heat Stress

The effect of heat stress on processes related to carbohydratepartitioning was investigated in young bell pepper (Capsicumannum L. cv. Maor) plants in relation to abscission of theirreproductive organs at different stages of development. None of the reproductive organs abscised after 5 d in a normalday/night temperature regime (25/18 °C). With a temperatureregime of 35 °C day, 25 °C night, abscission occurredin only a small portion of the flower buds and none of the flowersand fruitlets. However, when temperatures in the day and nightwere reversed (25/35 °C, day/night) all the buds and someof the flowers abscised during that time period. The young fruitat the first node did not abscise under any temperature regime.The abscission rate of the flower buds was reduced under heatstress if the developing fruit at the first node had been removed. High temperature during either the light or dark periods reducedthe export of [¹⁴C]sucrose from the source leaf (fed for 48h with [¹⁴C]sucrose). Both heat stress and fruit presence reduced the relative amountof [¹⁴C]sucrose which was exported to the flower buds, flowersand roots. Likewise, these treatments reduced the concentrationof reducing sugars in the reproductive organs. Concomitantly,the heat stress and fruit presence on the first node reducedthe activity of soluble acid invertase in the flower buds andthe roots, but not in young leaves. Overall, the results show that heat stress causes alternationin sucrose distribution in the plant, but may also have specificeffects on metabolic activities related to sucrose import andutilization in flower buds and flowers which in turn may enhancetheir abscission. Bell pepper, (Capsicum annuum L. cv. Maor), abscission, acid invertase, heat stress, reproductive organs, sink leaves     

Role of abscisic acid in the phenomena of abscission of flower buds and bolls of cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) and its reversal with other plant regulators

The investigations carried out to find the role of abscisic acid in the phenomena of abscission of flower buds and bolls of cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L. cv. ‘H-14’) have shown abscisic acid content to be low in retained bolls as compared to that in the abscising ones of the same age, suggesting that relatively higher endogenous abscisic acid content to be promotive of abscission. Abscisic acid applied exogenously either to intact flower buds/bolls or boll explants promoted their abscission. Naphthalene acetic acid not only reduced abscission but also could erase completely the promotive effect of abscisic acid on abscission. Gibberellic acid promoted abscission in intact buds and boll explants but applied to intact bolls it reduced their shedding even more than naphthalene acetic acid. Gibberellic acid could also counteract the promotive effect of abscisic acid in the case of intact bolls but enhanced that of boll explants. All the cytokinin-furfurylamino-purine treatments given other than at the abscission zone promoted abscission. Furfurylaminopurine applied in combination with abscisic acid showed some antagonistic effect in the case of intact bolls and boll explants abscission zone treatments. Ascorbic acid applied at a relatively lower dose (0.025 mM) reduced shedding but applied at a higher dose it showed promotion. Ascorbic acid could erase the promotive effect of abscisic acid on abscission to a significant extent.     

Fruit Abscission in Cowpea, Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp: I. DISTRIBUTION OF 14C-ASSIMILATES IN THE INFLORESCENCE, AND COMPARATIVE GROWTH OF OVARIES FROM PERSISTING AND ABSCISING OPEN FLOWERS

One of the hypotheses proposed for the abscission of flowersand fruits from the cowpea was that the oldest fruits at raceme1 on the peduncle monopolize the mobile nutrients availableto the whole inflorescence. Consequently, the distal young fruitsand flowers starve, abort, and are shed. This hypothesis wastested through autoradiographic studies of the distributionof ¹⁴C-assimilates on the cowpea inflorescence and the comparativegrowth of ovaries from persisting and abscising open flowersand young fruits. ¹⁴C-asaimilates were distributed to the fruits at raceme 1 andto flower buds, open flowers, and young fruits distal to raceme1. Therefore, the hypothesis that the fruits at raceme 1 monopolizethe mobile assimilates cannot be maintained. At the time of opening the persisting flowers of raceme 1 hadheavier ovaries than the aborting flowers of raceme 3 althoughboth types of flowers were visually alike. During the initial12 h following opening, the difference in ovary size was maintainedand often accentuated. The ovary of the persisting flower increasedin both fresh and dry weights. The growth of the ovary of theaborting flower was variable; the fresh weight often decreased,although it also increased in some experiments; the dry weightremained unchanged or decreased or increased remarkably. The availability of nutrients was considered to be of secondaryimportance in the chain of events leading to fruit abscission.Other internal factors which may control vital processes relatedto embryo development appear to be of primary, underlying importance.     

Partitioning of [14C]sucrose and Acid Invertase Activity in Reproductive Organs of Pepper Plants in Relation to Their Abscission Under Heat Stress

The effect of heat stress on processes related to carbohydratepartitioning was investigated in young bell pepper (Capsicumannum L. cv. Maor) plants in relation to abscission of theirreproductive organs at different stages of development. None of the reproductive organs abscised after 5 d in a normalday/night temperature regime (25/18°C). With a temperatureregime of 35°C day, 25°C night, abscission occurredin only a small portion of the flower buds and none of the flowersand fruitlets. However, when temperatures in the day and nightwere reversed (25/35°C, day/night) all the buds and someof the flowers abscised during that time period. The young fruitat the first node did not abscise under any temperature regime.The abscission rate of the flower buds was reduced under heatstress if the developing fruit at the first node had been removed. High temperature during either the light or dark periods reducedthe export of [¹⁴C]sucrose from the source leaf (fed for 48h with [¹⁴C]sucrose). Both heat stress and fruit presence reduced the relative amountof [¹⁴C]sucrose which was exported to the flower buds, flowersand roots. Likewise, these treatments reduced the concentrationof reducing sugars in the reproductive organs. Concomitantly,the heat stress and fruit presence on the first node reducedthe activity of soluble acid invertase in the flower buds andthe roots, but not in young leaves. Overall, the results show that heat stress causes alternationin sucrose distribution in the plant, but may also have specificeffects on metabolic activities related to sucrose import andutilization in flower buds and flowers which in turn may enhancetheir abscission. Bell pepper, (Capsicum annuum L. cv. Maor), abscission, acidinvertase, heat stress, reproductive organs, sink leaves. Bell pepper, (Capsicum annuum L. cv. Maor), abscission, acid invertase, heat stress, reproductive organs, sink leaves.     

Endogenous ethylene and abscisic Acid relative to phytogerontology

Endogenous production of ethylene and endogenous levels of abscisic acid were measured from Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. abscission zone explants at six stages of development: tight bud, open flower, closed flower, petal abscission, calyx abscission, and peduncle abscission.     

Growth retardation of woody species by three growth regulators

Flower-bud blasting in Iris occurs in the winter when low light intensities and short days prevail. After introduction of ¹⁴CO₂ to one leaf the transport of assimilates was studied under controlled culture conditions in a control light treatment and in a treatment of 7 days darkness followed by standard light conditions. Little assimilate transport was found in the direction of the bud in dark-treated plants. However, zeatin injection into the flower buds of the plants subjected to the dark treatment clearly promoted assimilate transport ot these buds. Abscisic acid levels, determined by gas chromatography, were found to increase in the buds of dark-treated plants. Zeatin injection into the flower bud resulted in a suppression of the abscisic acid level. The latter treatment also resulted in higher percentage of flowering. Removal of flower parts was found to inhibit peduncle elongation. The peduncle elongation of complete flowers started in a well defined period, and the fresh weight of buds was found to increase mainly in the last part of that period. Assimilate transport under low light intensities in relation to abscisic acid and supposed gibberellin is discussed.     

The effect of LAB 173711 and ethephon on time of flowering and cold hardiness of peach flower buds

Peach flowers are often killed during bloom by spring frosts. LAB 173711, a compound with abscisic (ABA)-like activity, and ethephon delayed flowering in peach trees. In greenhouse experiments, LAB 173711, at concentrations of 10^–3–10^–2 M, was most effective in delaying bloom when applied after a 5°C cold storage period, rather than before the dormancy breaking treatment. In contrast, ethephon delayed bloom most effectively when applied before 5°C cold storage; ethephon caused flower bud abscission when treatments were made after the chilling requirement had been satisfied. In field experiments, ethephon delayed flowering by 6–7 days, which reduced bud injury after a spring frost during bloom. No flower bud injury was found on ethephon-treated trees after temperatures of –4.3°C; whereas without ethephon 25% of the flower buds were frost damaged. LAB 173711 delayed the time to 50% bloom by 2–3 days. However, this was not long enough to avoid low-temperature injury to the flower buds.     

Changes in distribution of cell wall polysaccharides in floral and fruit abscission zones during fruit development in tomato (Solanum lycopersicum)

After fruit development has been triggered by pollination, the abscission zone (AZ) in the pedicel strengthens its adhesion to keep the fruit attached. Unpollinated flowers are shed at their respective AZs, whereas an enlargement of the same tissue is observed in pollinated flowers. After the fruit has developed and is fully ripened, shedding occurs easily at the AZ, indicating an acceleration of abscission. Cell wall degradation and synthesis may play important roles in these processes; however, little is understood. In this report, we have visualized changes in polysaccharide distribution in the AZs of pollinated versus unpollinated flowers and in the ripened fruits using immunohistochemistry. During floral abscission, a large increase was observed in LM15 labeling of xyloglucan specifically at the AZ in the abscising pedicel. LM5 and LM6 labeling of galactan and arabinan, respectively, also increased—LM5 throughout the pedicel and LM6 at the basal side of the AZ. The results suggest that xyloglucan, pectic galactan and arabinan play key roles in the abscission process. During fruit abscission, unlike in floral abscission, no AZ-specific cell wall polysaccharide deposition was observed; however, high autofluorescence was seen in the AZ of over-ripe fruit pedicels, suggesting secondary cell wall synthesis and lignification of the AZ prior to fruit abscission.     

The role of polar auxin transport through pedicels of Prunus avium L. in relation to fruit development and retention

It was investigated whether premature fruit abscission in Prunus avium L. was triggered by a reduction in polar auxin transport (PAT). The capacity of pedicels to transport tritiated IAA ([3H]-IAA) via the PAT pathway was measured at intervals throughout flower and fruit development. The extent of passive diffusion, assessed by concurrent applications of [14C]-benzoic acid ([14C]-BA), was negligible. Transported radioactivity recovered from agar blocks eluted at the same retention time as authentic [3H]-IAA during HPLC fractionation. The capacity for PAT was already high 7 d before anthesis and increased further following the fertilization of flowers at anthesis. PAT intensity was greatest immediately following fertilization and at the beginning of the cell expansion phase of fruit growth; the transport intensity in fruitlets destined to abscind was negligible. The amount of endogenous IAA moving through the PAT pathway was greatest during the first 3 weeks after fertilization and was again high at the beginning of the fruit expansion stage. IAA export in the phloem increased following fertilization then declined below detectable levels. ABA export in the phloem increased markedly during stone formation and at the onset of fruit expansion. TIBA applied to pedicels of fruit in situ promoted fruitlet abscission in 2000 but not in 2001, despite PAT capacity being reduced by over 98% in the treated pedicels. The application of TIBA to pedicels did not affect fruit expansion. The role of PAT and IAA in relation to the development and retention of Prunus avium fruit is discussed.