Regulation of biotechnology in the United States: One and a half years of using the ‘coordinated framework’

There are several organizations in the US with responsibilities for regulatory oversight of the planned introduction of recombinant DNA organisms into the environment. Equally, there are many kinds of projects which require assessment. The policies, recommendations and rulings of the various authorities have been integrated into a ‘Coordinated Framework’ which defines the operation of flexible case-by-case risk assessment. Additions to and revision of the guidelines are being made, a process which will continue in the light of new experience.     

The effects of land-use policies on the conservation of Borneo’s endemic Presbytis monkeys

Despite supporting the highest biodiversity on Earth, tropical rainforests are undergoing intensive economic development. In particular, the island of Borneo has lost over 56 % of original lowland forest to resource extraction, fires, and illegal logging. Its rainforests contain 16 primate species, which serve as excellent ‘umbrella’ taxa for conservation initiatives. The genus Presbytis (Colobinae) is well represented across Borneo by four endemic species (P. chrysomelas; P. frontata; P. hosei, and P. rubicunda), but remains relatively understudied. Using ecological niche modelling, I calculated the distributions of the 12 Bornean Presbytis subspecies; evaluated habitat loss between 2000 and 2010, and examined the current land-use policies across remnant distributions. Subspecies experienced a mean 12.7 % (N = 12 sp.) habitat reduction over the 10 year period. 12.5 % of all habitats were allocated for conversion to oil palm and industrial tree plantations, while logging concessions accounted for a mean 26.3 % across distributions. While the current protected area networks encompassed an average 33.4 % of distributions, most PAs are underfunded, degraded and threatened by logging and mining operations. I therefore recommend priority gazetting of unallocated lands to new PAs within the distribution of Presbytis chrysomelas and Presbytis hosei sabana, which have experienced the highest forest loss in the last 10 years (22–50 %) and are critically endangered. Logging concessions appear to be at least as effective in maintaining forest cover as PAs and have the economic advantage for effective management, but may have detrimental effects to monkey populations. I recommend an urgent assessment of the effects of selective logging practices on species’ persistence, and further recommend population surveys to quantify the populations of critically endangered and data deficient subspecies.     

The pistachio nut—a new crop for the Western United States

Importers claim that each year they could process and sell approximately 15,000 tons ot pistachio nuts it they were available. Presently, only a small quantity are produced commercially in Caliiornia. Experimental work with selected imported varieties, breeding, cultivating, pruning and other horticultural practises at the United States Department of Agriculture's Plant Introduction Station at Chico, California has demonstrated the economic feasibility of this crop for American growers.     

Fossil lizards and snakes from Ano Metochi – a diverse squamate fauna from the latest Miocene of northern Greece

We here describe a new squamate fauna from the late Miocene (Messinian, MN 13) of Ano Metochi, northern Greece. The lizard fauna of Ano Metochi is here shown to be rather diverse, consisting of lacertids, anguids, and potential cordylids, while snakes are also abundant, consisting of scolecophidians, natricines and at least two different colubrines. If our identification is correct, the Ano Metochi cordylids are the first ones identified from Greece and they are also the youngest representatives of this group in Europe. A previously described scincoid from the adjacent locality of Maramena is here tentatively also referred to cordylids, strengthening a long term survival of this group until at least the latest Miocene. The scolecophidian from Ano Metochi cannot be attributed with certainty to either typhlopids or leptotyphlopids, which still inhabit the Mediterranean region. The find nevertheless adds further to the poor fossil record of these snakes. Comparison of the Ano Metochi herpetofauna with that of the adjacent locality of Maramena reveals similarities, but also striking differences among their squamate compositions.     

Towards a more accurate future for chlorophyll a and b determinations: the inaccuracies of Daniel Arnon’s assay

Photosynthesis Research - A recent publication (Esteban in New Phytol 217:341–342, 2018) describes how the use and citation of the assay of chlorophylls a and b extracted in aqueous 80%...     

Residents’ support for wolf and bear conservation: the moderating influence of knowledge

This article examines the combined influence of cognitions (i.e., impact beliefs) and affect (i.e., feelings) on normative beliefs (i.e., support for management options) about wolves and brown bears. Data were obtained from stratified random face-to-face interviews (n = 1,611). The survey was conducted in the Abruzzo Lazio and Molise National Park (central Italy), where people have a long history of coexistence with large carnivores. Knowledge was hypothesized to moderate the relationships of beliefs and feelings on support for management actions. Path analyses supported the role of affect in mediating perceived impact beliefs and support for the protection of large carnivores. Knowledge moderated these relationships in the case of wolves but not brown bears. Residents of the national park had more knowledge about bears than wolves, which might partly explain both the stronger effect that knowledge had on the affective component and its lack of a moderating effect on the bear model. Overall, our findings show the positive attitude of residents toward large carnivores and support the idea of affect being more important than cognition in predicting normative beliefs.     

Mitochondrial phylogeography and demographic history of the vicuña: implications for conservation

The vicu?a (Vicugna vicugna; Miller, 1924) is a conservation success story, having recovered from near extinction in the 1960s to current population levels estimated at 275,000. However, lack of information about its demographic history and genetic diversity has limited both our understanding of its recovery and the development of science-based conservation measures. To examine the evolution and recent demographic history of the vicu?a across its current range and to assess its genetic variation and population structure, we sequenced mitochondrial DNA from the control region (CR) for 261 individuals from 29 populations across Peru, Chile and Argentina. Our results suggest that populations currently designated as Vicugna vicugna vicugna and Vicugna vicugna mensalis comprise separate mitochondrial lineages. The current population distribution appears to be the result of a recent demographic expansion associated with the last major glacial event of the Pleistocene in the northern (18 to 22 degrees S) dry Andes 14-12,000 years ago and the establishment of an extremely arid belt known as the 'Dry Diagonal' to 29 degrees S. Within the Dry Diagonal, small populations of V. v. vicugna appear to have survived showing the genetic signature of demographic isolation, whereas to the north V. v. mensalis populations underwent a rapid demographic expansion before recent anthropogenic impacts.     

The offshore jurisdiction of the states of the United States and the provinces of Canada—A comparison

Abstract

The coastal state has jurisdiction over the resources located in the seas and seabed adjacent to its coast. In federal states the question has arisen as to whether the rights in those resources are to be held by the national government or by the subsidiary territorial governments. It has been the focus of political activity and court litigation in the United States and Canada. This paper reviews in detail the status of the offshore claims of the states of the United States and the provinces of Canada. In delimiting these boundaries two systems of law have become relevant—modern public international law and historic common law. Both systems of law have advantages and disadvantages for the courts and interested parties. While the United States has chosen a route that relies very heavily on modern public international law, the Canadian situation is less clear. Litigation now in progress may resolve this issue in Canada by court decree unless a political settlement is reached first. A recent agreement between the Federal Government of Canada and the Gov eminent of Nova Scotia which calls for joint management and revenue sharing may point the way toward such a settlement.     

Fish faunal ‘breaks’ and stream order in the eastern and central United States

Synopsis The distribution of fishes within 23 streams in the eastern and central United States was analyzed for evidence of distinct longitudinal faunal breaks, and to compare location of the breaks to stream order and longitudinal position of stations within watersheds. On the basis of presence-absence data for fish species, distinct faunal breaks were found in only 8 of the 23 streams. Qualitative faunal breaks were not significantly more common in any particular reach of streams, and the breaks did not correspond to changes in stream order. In 11 of 14 streams for which data on fish abundance were available, quantitative faunal breaks were found, but the locations of these breaks were unrelated to stream order or longitudinal position of stations in streams. Earlier studies have postulated that stream orders may represent distinct biological units for fishes. In contrast, this analysis shows that local fish faunas differ as much within as between adjacent stream orders, and suggests that stream order alone is not a pervasive organizer of lotic fish communities.     

Tracking Economic and Environmental Indicators of Exported Wood Pellets to the United Kingdom from the Southern United States: Lessons for Policy?

This study estimates the abatement cost of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions for a unit of electricity generated in the UK from wood pellets imported from Southern USA. We assumed that only pulpwood obtained from loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) plantations was used for manufacturing exported wood pellets. The use of imported wood pellets for electricity generation could save at least 69.9 % of GHG emissions relative to coal-based electricity in the UK. The average unit production cost of electricity generated from imported wood pellets (US$222.3 MWh^?1) was higher by 30.0 % than the unit production cost of electricity generated from coal (US$171.0 MWh^?1) without any price support. In the presence of payments from the established price support mechanisms of Renewable Obligation Certificates (ROCs) and Levy Exemption Certificates (LECs), the unit production cost of electricity generated from imported wood pellets (US$142.9 MWh^?1) was lower by about 16.0 % than the unit production cost of electricity generated from coal. Policy makers should consider 1 MWh of electricity generated from imported wood pellets equivalent to 0.58 ROCs or 0.71 ROCs in presence and absence of payments from LECs, respectively. This will ensure zero abatement cost and lead to economic efficiency in reducing GHG emissions. However, a more in-depth analysis focusing on the market risks for power-generating companies and other wood pellet supply chains is required before modifying existing equivalency factors for ensuring continuous use of imported wood pellets for displacing coal-based electricity in the UK.     

Let’s eat out,there’s crayfish for dinner: American bullfrog niche shifts inside and outside native ranges and the effect of introduced crayfish

In invasion ecology, niche width has been recognized as a crucial factor for the outcome of an invasion. A common characteristic of successful invaders seems to be a broad niche width, and their impact on native communities may increase with increasing niche size. Overall, successful invader predators are predicted to shift their niche width by broadening it from native to invaded conditions. The scarcity of ecological studies examining invasive species in their native ranges prevents researchers from knowing if the prevalence of generalist invaders represents conservatism of broad native-range niches or instead niche shifts as a result of different processes acting in the invaded areas. Here we reviewed literature on trophic niche of the predatory invader American bullfrog (Lithobates catesbeianus) in both native and invaded ranges. We used statistical and graphic tools to analyse possible shifts in dietary niche width and the effect of introduced crayfish on the feeding strategy of L. catesbeianus. Globally, our results indicate that food sources used by the species differed in native and invaded sites, with a narrower trophic niche width in invaded areas. However, this pattern was disrupted by the occurrence of introduced crayfish that represents the major driver of the observed niche-width variation. Our data shed light on possible complications in interpreting and predicting patterns of biological invasions due to the interaction among species from different trophic levels that apparently disrupt general patterns that are likely bound to be idiosyncratic and complex.     

Milkweed—A war strategic material and a potential industrial crop for sub-marginal lands in the United States

In 1943 the U. S. Federal Government erected a milk weed floss- and seed-extracting plant at Petoskey, Michigan, the only one of its kind in the world, and in one year this plant furnished to the armed forces two million pounds of milkweed floss that was used in lieu of kapok from Java in the manufacture of life saving equipment. Two million pounds of seed and tons of fibers were by-products as potential commercial sources of oil and cellulose, respectively.     

More individuals but fewer species: testing the ‘more individuals hypothesis’ in a diverse tropical fauna

A positive relationship between species richness and productivity is often observed in nature, but the causes remain contentious. One mechanism, the ‘more individuals hypothesis’ (MIH), predicts richness increases monotonically with density, as a function of resource flux. To test the MIH, we manipulated resource abundance in a community of tropical rainforest litter ants and measured richness and density responses. A unimodal relationship between richness and density most closely fitted the control and disturbance (resource removal) treatments in contrast to expectations of the MIH. Resource addition resulted in a monotonic increase in richness relative to density, a shift from the pattern in the control. In the disturbance treatment, richness was greater than in the control, opposite to expectations of the MIH. While large-scale correlations between ant diversity and net primary productivity or temperature are reconcilable with the MIH, key elements of the hypothesis are not supported.     

United States patent prior art rules and the neem controversy: a case of subject-matter imperialism?

A recent United States patent covering an improvement to the naturally-occurring pesticide in neem tree seed oil might have been rejected as 'obvious' if United States patent law recognized certain forms of prior inventive activity on a par with similar activity occurring within the United States' borders. But the US only recognizes prior 'knowledge, use or invention' as blocking a claim to a patent when those activities take place within US borders, or are evidenced by publications accessible in the US, or, more commonly, by foreign patents. Neither of these last forms of tangible 'prior art' is likely to be available to block patents on biodiversity inventions – most notably because of the fact that most developing nations do not allow patents on pharmaceutical or agricultural inventions, categories subsuming most biodiversity-related advances. Although the United States patent only has direct force within the United States, it is nonetheless highly significant to this global dispute, since the United States and other developed nations stand to be the major markets for the end-products of neem. This paper argues that the border-drawing distinctions in US patent law are archaic, counter to stated policy directives and are disproportionately influencing the developing world's stance towards GATT and its intellectual property rights provisions.     

Review of the fauna of Rotatoria,Cladocera, and Copepoda of the basin of the Anadyr’ River

The zooplankton composition is studied in the thermokarst, glacial and meteorite lakes, channels, former riverbeds, and hollows in the basin of Anadyr’. We found 174 taxa: 78, Rotatoria, 55, Cladocera, and 41, Copepoda. The most diverse is the lake fauna: 51 taxa of Rotatoria, 48, Cladocera, and 37, Copepoda. The thermokarst Lake Maiorskoe hosts 68 taxa: 31, Rotatoria, 14, Cladocera, and 23, Copepoda, wheras the cold ultraoligotrophic Lake El’gygytgyn features only one species of Cyclop of the group scutifer Cyclops neymanae Strel., and Rotatoria and Cladocera are present as allochtonous forms. The Copepoda illustrate the relations of the Anadyr’ fauna with those of Europe, North America, and Japan.     

Climate refugia for Pinus spp. in topographic and bioclimatic environments of the Madrean sky islands of México and the United States

Climate refugia, or places where habitats are expected to remain relatively buffered from regional climate extremes, provide an important focus for science and conservation planning. Within high-priority, multi-jurisdictional landscapes like the Madrean sky islands of the United States and México, efforts to identify and manage climate refugia are hindered by the lack of high-quality and consistent transboundary datasets. To fill these data gaps, we assembled a bi-national field dataset (n?=?1416) for five pine species (Pinus spp.) and used generalized boosted regression to model pine habitats in relation to topographic variability as a basis for identifying potential microrefugia at local scales in the context of current species’ distribution patterns. We developed additional models to quantify climatic refugial attributes using coarse scale bioclimatic variables and finer scale seasonal remote sensing indices. Terrain metrics including ruggedness, slope position, and aspect defined microrefugia for pines within elevation ranges preferred by each species. Response to bioclimatic variables indicated that small shifts in climate were important to some species (e.g., P. chihuahuana, P. strobiformis), but others exhibited a broader tolerance (e.g., P. arizonica). Response to seasonal climate was particularly important in modeling microrefugia for species with open canopy structure and where regular fires occur (e.g., P. engelmannii and P. chihuahuana). Hotspots of microrefugia differed among species and were either limited to northern islands or occurred across central or southern latitudes. Mapping and validation of refugia and their ecological functions are necessary steps in developing regional conservation strategies that cross jurisdictional boundaries. A salient application will be incorporation of climate refugia in management of fire to restore and maintain pine ecology. Una versión en español de este artículo está disponible como descarga.