Microwave-aided technique to detect bromodeoxyuridine in S-phase cells using immunogold-silver staining and plastic-embedded sections

Summary A technique is described to detect bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) incorporate by cells in S-phase, with a monoclonal antibody, using removable plastic embedding and immunogold-silver staining (IGSS). The incubation times were reduced and the immunological reactions enhanced by microwave irradiation.The embedding in methyl methacrylate enabled us to make thinner sections and it improved the quality of the preparations. The methyl methacrylate did not hinder the reaction of BrdU with the antibody because it could be removed prior to the IGSS procedure. The IGSS procedure appeared to be very sensitive, requiring lower concentrations of the antibodies than other methods. The use of microwave irradiation shortened the time needed to stain a section from 7 to less than 4 h. Furthermore, using microwave irradiation, the concentration of the antibodies needed could be reduced even further compared with the normal IGSS procedure.In sections of the mouse testis and small intestine only nuclei of cells known to be able to proliferate appeared BrdU positive. The non-specific background staining was found to be negligible. In testes of mice that received both³H-thymidine and BrdU more than 95% of the radioactively labelled cells also showed BrdU label and vice versa. This indicates that both methods are equally sensitive for detecting cells in S-phase.     

Interaction of monoclonal antibodies directed against bromodeoxyuridine with pyrimidine bases, nucleosides, and DNA

Although antibodies directed against bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) are being used in both clinical and basic research laboratories as tools to study and monitor DNA synthesis, little is known about the epitopes with which they react. Four monoclonal antibodies directed against BrdU were produced and were characterized to learn more about the epitopes on BrdU which are important for antibody recognition, to identify compounds other than BrdU which react with the antibodies and which might interfere with immunologic assays for BrdU, and to characterize the reaction of these antibodies with BrdU-containing DNA. By radioimmunoassays, the antibodies generally reacted well with 5-iododeoxyuridine, 5-fluorodeoxyuridine, and 5-nitrouracil. However, none of the antibodies reacted well with uridine--indicating that a substituent on uridine C5 was essential for antibody reactivity--or with 5-bromo- or iodo-cytosine, indicating that the region around pyrimidine C4 is important for antibody recognition. Although the antibodies reacted with 5-halogen-substituted uracil bases, the antibodies reacted much better with the corresponding halogenated nucleosides, indicating that the sugar moiety was important for recognition. The presence of a triphosphate group on C'5 of BrdU (i.e., BrdUTP) did not detectably alter antibody recognition. Three of the antibodies reacted only with purified DNA containing BrdU, whereas one antibody, which exhibited a weak interaction with thymidine, also reacted with BrdU-free DNA. S1 nuclease treatment of purified DNA suggested that all four monoclonal antibodies reacted exclusively with single-stranded regions of BrdU-containing DNA. Comparison of detecting DNA synthesis by [3H]TdR incorporation followed by autoradiography with that by BrdU incorporation followed by indirect immunofluorescence indicated that the latter technique was both an accurate and a sensitive measure of DNA synthesis.     

A rapid immunogold-silver staining for detection of bromodeoxyuridine in large numbers of plastic sections, using microwave irradiation

Summary A rapid and convenient method for the large scale, immunogold-silver staining (IGSS) of bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) incorporated by S phase cells, by means of a monoclonal antibody (anti-BrdU) is described. Nineteen slides at a time can be incubated with the antibodies and the protein A-gold (PAG) in staining jars. The antibody and protein A-gold solutions could be used at least five times to incubate new batches of slides. The incubation times with these solutions were shortened by means of microwave irradiation. In this way 200 slides carrying at least 800 sections could be easily processed under the same conditions in one day, using 1.25ml neat antibody solutions of anti-BrdU and rabbit anti-mouse.For light microscopy bothpplastic embedding systems: methylmethacrylate (MMA) and glycolmethacrylate (GMA) can be stained with this technique. The MMA sections, of which the plastic has to be removed before the IGSS, has the advantage of a stronger labelling intensity. The GMA plastic, which contains a cross-linking, agent cannot be removed and consequently for GMA sections it is necessary to incubate the sections with a proteolytic enzyme (trypsin) before the IGSS, to reexpose the antigenic binding sides. However, the GMA sections can be allowed to air dry during the IGSS without negative effects on the morphology. This makes it possible to perform the antibody and the PAG-incubating steps on one day and to finish the IGSS the next day. In this way twice as many GMA slides can be incubated with the same antibody and PAG solutions than with MMA slides.In both plastic embedding systems the intensity of the BrdU labelling was found to be stronger in Carnoy's than in Bouin's fixed sections.     

Cell kinetic study of human carcinomas using bromodeoxyuridine

Cell kinetics in human malignant tumours were studied in vivo using bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) and immunohistochemistry. BrdU was administered to twenty-four patients with gastric cancer at a dose of 1 g pre-operatively. Specimens were obtained during the operation, fixed in 70% ethanol and embedded in paraffin. BrdU-incorporating cells were detected by immunohistochemical staining using anti-BrdU monoclonal antibody. The labelling index (LI), determined by counting tumour cells microscopically, ranged from 4.0 to 41.4%. The LI was higher at the site of invasion than in the central area of the tumour, but no correlation was found between histological differentiation and LI. The LI of stage I gastric cancer was statistically lower than that of stage II, III and IV gastric cancers (P less than 0.005). This technique, which is less cumbersome and time-consuming than using radioactive isotopes of thymidine, appears to be useful for studying cell kinetics of human malignant tumours.     

In Situ Hybridization at the Electron Microscopic Level Using a Bromodeoxyuridine Labeled DNA Probe

A bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) labeled DNA probe was used for in situ hybridization at the electron microscopic (EM) level. A BrdU labeled DNA probe was hybridized in situ to cryostat sections of paraformaldehyde fixed OCT compound embedded cultured HL-60 cells. After hybridization, some sections were incubated with FITC-conjugated anti-BrdU monoclonal antibody for fluorescence microscopy (FM). and others were embedded in Quetol for electron microscopy (EM). The ultrathin sections of Quetol-embedded specimens were incubated with the anti-BrdU monoclonal antibody and the immunoglobulin: gold colloid. In both FM and EM studies, the signals were concentrated in the rough endoplasmic reticulum. Moreover, some label was arranged from the nucleus to the cytoplasm at the EM level. Relatively simple methods using the BrdU labeled DNA probe for the detection of the defined nucleic acid sequence with reasonable tissue preservation and high resolution are described here. This method may be useful for developmental and disease related studies of specific mRNA in cells and tissues.     

In vitro immunohistochemical localization of S-phase cells by a monoclonal antibody to bromodeoxyuridine

Thin viable slices of normal or pathological human tissues were incubated in vitro with bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU). Later, cryostatic sections and histological sections from the same samples embedded in paraffin were examined by an immunohistochemical method using a monoclonal antibody anti-bromodeoxyuridine (anti-BrdU-MAb): on both cryostatic and histological sections, the nuclei of the S-phase cells proved positive. The optimization of the technique depends on the concentration of bromodeoxyuridine in the culture medium (160 microM), the duration of incubation (not less than two h), the method of DNA denaturation (2N or 4N HCl) and the dilution of the anti-BrdU-MAb (1:50). In vitro, immunohistochemical application of the BrdU/anti-BrdU-MAb method permits a quantitative assessment of the proliferative activity of a tissue as well as the direct location of the actively replicating cells in histological sections.     

Improved methodology for detecting bromodeoxyuridine in cultured cells and tissue sections by immunocytochemistry

Detection of DNA synthesizing cells may often be achieved by immunocytochemical detection of bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU), which is rapid and appears to give similar results to those found using tritiated thymidine. However, the methodology for detection of BrdU involves a denaturation or digestion step to allow access of the antibody to BrdU incorporated into single- rather than double-stranded DNA. We wished to determine if microwave treatment could be used to enhance the detection of BrdU without the need for any other digestion/denaturation steps. An important consideration was to investigate whether such treatment produces a similar quantitative result, since BrdU detection is usually assessed on the basis of cell number rather than topographical distribution. We have found that microwave treatment can allow considerably lower antibody concentrations and eliminates the need for any other denaturation step. It also reduces the non-specific background staining found when using monoclonal antibodies on mouse tissue. We have performed cell counts and found that the number of BrdU positive cells remains constant for a range of different immunocytochemical parameters. We also report conditions where immunopositivity is adversely affected by changes in technique and describe the optimised conditions for obtaining reproducible results.     

Flow cytometric estimation of cell cycle parameters using a monoclonal antibody to bromodeoxyuridine

An estimation of cell kinetic parameters was made by simultaneous flow cytometric measurements of DNA and bromodeoxyuridine (BrdUrd) contents of cells. The procedure described in this paper involves the incorporation of BrdUrd by S phase cells, labeling the BrdUrd with an indirect immunofluorescent technique using a monoclonal anti-BrdUrd antibody, and staining DNA with propidium iodide (PI). The amount of incorporated BrdUrd in HeLa cells was proportional to that of synthesized DNA through S phase. For all cell lines examined, the pattern of BrdUrd incorporation was essentially the same and the rate of DNA synthesis during S phase was not constant. The bivariate BrdUrd/DNA distributions showed a horse-shoe pattern, maximum in the mid S phase and minimum in the early and late S phases. Furthermore, the durations of cell cycle (Tc) and S phase (Ts) were estimated from a FLSm (fraction of labeled cells in mid S phase) curve that was generated by plotting the percentage of BrdUrd pulse-labeled cells in a narrow window defined in the mid S phase of the DNA histogram. The values of these parameters in NIH 3T3, HeLa S3, and HL-60 cells were in good accordance with the reported data. This FCM method using the monoclonal anti-BrdUrd antibody allows rapid determination of both cell cycle compartments and also Ts and Tc without the use of radioactive DNA precursors.     

Double immunocytochemical labeling of cell and tissue samples with monoclonal anti-bromodeoxyuridine

We describe a new monoclonal antibody (designated Bu20a) against bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU). This antibody was selected by screening against human tissues using the APAAP technique, and shows no crossreactivity with normal nuclei. It stains BrdU incorporated into the nuclei of a wide range of cell types, including human tonsil lymphoid cells, normal mouse tissues, and human tumors growing in nude mice. A double-labeling technique is described using this antibody in which cell smears or tissue sections are first labeled by an immunoperoxidase procedure for a cellular antigen (e.g., mouse or human histocompatibility class II antigen, T-lymphocyte antigen, keratin) and BrdU is then detected by indirect immunofluorescence. This procedure, which was applied to a variety of human and animal cells and tissues, is of wide potential value in analyzing the phenotype of S-phase cells and in co-localizing antigen expression and BrdU incorporation in tissue sections.     

Cytochemistry for bromodeoxyuridine/DNA analysis: stoichiometry and sensitivity

This report describes an improved immunochemical procedure for staining cells in suspension for amount of incorporated bromodeoxyuridine (BrdUrd) and total DNA. In this procedure, cellular DNA is partially denatured by extracting the cells with 0.1 M HCl and then heating them to 80 degrees C in a 50% formamide solution. The cells are then immunofluorescently stained using a monoclonal antibody against BrdUrd in single-strand DNA (ssDNA) and counterstained for DNA content with propidium iodide (PI), a dye that fluoresces preferentially when bound to double-strand DNA (dsDNA). We show that the relative amounts of immunofluorescently stained BrdUrd in ssDNA and PI in dsDNA can be altered reciprocally by changing the formamide concentration, denaturation time, and denaturation temperature. We show that this new immunochemical staining procedure allows more complete DNA denaturation so that fivefold lower levels of BrdUrd incorporation can be quantified. In addition, we show that the BrdUrd-linked immunofluorescence achieved using the new denaturation procedure is more linearly related to cellular BrdUrd content than that achieved after acid DNA denaturation. However, cell loss is sufficiently severe with the thermal denaturation procedure that it may not be applicable to all cell types.     

Effect of mitomycin C and bromodeoxyuridine on Fanconi anemia lymphocytes.

The authors studied the effect of mitomycin C (MMC) and bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) on the induction of chromosome aberrations on lymphocytes of four patients with Fanconi anemia (FA) and of one normal subject. A control culture and six experiments were designed to test the possible synergic effect of MMC and BrdU. Their results revealed no evidence of MMC-BrdU synergism on the induction of chromosome aberrations in FA lymphocytes. However, chromosomes showed more damage when FA cells were harvested 24 h after MMC stress than when cells were harvested shortly after treatment. This can be explained by a DNA repair defect or by a toxic effect of oxygenation of cells during the procedure.     

Bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) immunocytochemistry by exonuclease III (Exo III) digestion.

A new procedure is described to generate single-stranded DNA by exonuclease III (Exo III) digestion for bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) immunocytochemistry on tissue sections. We compared this procedure with the most widely used procedure of DNA denaturation with 2 N HCl. In vivo and in vitro pulse and continuous labelling of tissues and cells were used. The specimens were fixed in formalin, ethanol, glutaraldehyde, Carnoy's, Bouin's or Zamboni's fixative and embedded in paraffin or used unfixed as cryostat sections or cytospin preparations. After Exo III digestion, BrdU substituted DNA was detected irrespective of the fixation procedure applied. The optimal protocol for nuclease digestion appeared to be simultaneous incubation, of 10 Units Exo III per ml EcoRI buffer and anti-BrdU monoclonal antibody at 37 degrees C. The advantages of Exo III digestion for BrdU immunocytochemistry compared to acid denaturation were: less non-specific nuclear background reactivity, no DNA renaturation, less DNA loss, optimal nuclear morphology, increase in antibody efficiency and the possibility for simultaneous detection of acid-sensitive tissue constituents. Disadvantages of the Exo III digestion are decreased sensitivity and the need for more rigorous pepsin pretreatment. We conclude that Exo III digestion of DNA is an appropriate alternative for acid denaturation for BrdU immunocytochemistry on sections of pulse-labelled specimens.     

Differences in the incorporation of bromodeoxyuridine by human lymphoblastoid cell lines.

Long term human lymphoblastoid lines differ in their ability to grow in medium containing bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) and to incorporate analog into their DNA. Eight Burkitt's lymphoma cell lines divided at least twice in BrdU-containing medium and made DNA in which over 90% of the thymidine residues were substituted with analog in both strands. Three infectious mononucleosis-derived lines and 24 lines transformed in vitro were inhibited by BrdU after one cell division and made only hybrid DNA in which one strand was substituted with analog. One out of eight normal individuals from whom long term lines were prepared gave cell lines which divided at least twice in BrdU and gave DNA in which both strands were substituted with analog. It would appear that intrinsic cellular factors regulate the response to BrdU and that Burkitt's tumor lines are characterized by their ability to make stable doubly substituted DNA containing a high proportion of halogenated analog.     

Determination of the baseline sister chromatid exchange frequency in human and mouse peripheral lymphocytes using monoclonal antibodies and very low doses of bromodeoxyuridine

We measured the frequency of sister chromatid exchanges (SCEs) in human and mouse peripheral lymphocytes using doses of bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) ranging from 30 nM to 100 microM (human) and from 10 nM to 10 microM (mouse). Heparinized peripheral blood was obtained from five healthy nonsmokers and from six C57B1/6 male mice. The blood was stimulated with PHA (human) or lipopolysaccharide (LPS, mouse) and grown for the first of two cell cycles in BrdU. Metaphase chromosomes were denatured and exposed to a monoclonal antibody reactive to single-stranded DNA containing BrdU. A second antibody was used to label the first antibody with fluorescein, and propidium iodide was used as a counterstain. Second-division metaphases were thus differentially stained red to indicate DNA content and yellow-green to indicate the presence of BrdU. The results indicate that the baseline SCE frequency in human and mouse peripheral lymphocytes is 3.6 and 2.4 SCEs per cell per generation, and that in the human these frequencies are invariant at the lowest BrdU levels. This suggests that SCEs are an integral part of DNA replication, even in the absence of agents known to induce SCEs. The distribution of SCEs per chromosome was analyzed and found to be Poisson-distributed in all 24 murine cultures and in 25 of 36 human cultures. The distribution of SCEs per chromosome may be due to either species-specific chromosome packaging or to karyotypic differences between the species.     

两种DNA探针杂交检测结核分支杆菌方法的研究

为改进结核杆菌DNA探针的特异性与实用性,研制了以生物素标记的两种对结核分支杆菌特异的DNA探针:一个5’端标记的20bp的寡核苷酸探针和一个采用PCR方法合成的188bp长链探针。两种探针分别与结核分支杆菌的全染色体DNA,以及基因组上IS6110序列的一段317bp的PCR扩增产物进行斑点杂交,以碱性磷酸酶(AP)催化的染色反应检测,测试了两个探针的敏感性和特异性。系统地比较研究了两种探针杂交检测条件:探针的浓度选择,杂交温度与洗膜温度的选择,以及杂交与洗膜温度对检测的敏感性与特异性的影响。寡核苷酸探针和188bp探针杂交检测纯化结核分支杆菌基因组DNA的敏感性分别为100ng与6ng,杂交检测PCR产物的敏感性分别是400pg与50pg。两探针的最佳杂交浓度均为40～160ng/ml,最佳杂交温度分别是42℃与68℃,最佳洗膜温度分别是60℃与60～68℃之间。两种探针均仅与结核分支杆菌及BCG有杂交信号,而与其它受试分支杆菌及非分支杆菌杂交结果都呈阴性。它们的特异性都很强,但188bp探针的敏感性约是寡核苷酸探针的7～16倍,而且188bp探针检测本底较低,是检测结核分支杆菌的较佳选择     

Bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) immunocytochemistry by exonuclease III (Exo III) digestion

Summary A new procedure is described to generate single-stranded DNA by exonuclease III (Exo III) digestion for bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) immunocytochemistry on tissue sections. We compared this procedure with the most widely used procedure of DNA denaturation with 2 N HCl. In vivo and in vitro pulse and continuous labelling of tissues and cells were used. The specimens were fixed in formalin, ethanol, glutaraldehyde, Carnoy's, Bouin's or Zamboni's fixative and embedded in paraffin or used unfixed as cryostat sections or cytospin preparations. After Exo III digestion, BrdU substituted DNA was detected irrespective of the fixation procedure applied. The optimal protocol for nuclease digestion appeared to be simultaneous incubation, of 10 Units Exo III per ml EcoRI buffer and anti-BrdU monoclonal antibody at 37° C. The advantages of Exo III digestion for BrdU immunocytochemistry compared to acid denaturation were: less non-specific nuclear background reactivity, no DNA renaturation, less DNA loss, optimal nuclear morphology, increase in antibody efficiency and the possibility for simultaneous detection of acid-sensitive tissue constituents. Disadvantages of the Exo III digestion are decreased sensitivity and the need for more rigorous pepsin pretreatment. We conclude that Exo III digestion of DNA is an appropriate alternative for acid denaturation for BrdU immunocytochemistry on sections of pulse-labelled specimens.     

Characterization of monoclonal antibodies to bromodeoxyuridine

The characteristics of three mouse monoclonal antibodies to halogenated uridine derivatives are presented. Two, IU-1 and IU-2, are produced by hybridomas derived in our laboratory, and the third is the B-44 hybridoma described by Gratzner (7) and obtained commercially from Becton-Dickinson Monoclonal Center. Hybridomas IU-1 and IU-2 were derived from the fusion of spleen cells from a Biozzi High Responder mouse immunized with iododeoxyuridine (IdUrd) conjugated to bovine serum albumin and SP2/0 mouse myeloma cells. This paper presents methods and results for enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA) against whole cells labeled with bromodeoxyuridine (BrdUrd), ELISA against BrdUrd-labeled DNA, and a competition ELISA for free BrdUrd. All three antibodies show similar binding affinities and specificities. The IU antibodies react with BrdUrd and IdUrd when the nucleosides are either free in solution or incorporated into single-stranded DNA (ss-DNA). The antibodies do not recognize either halogenated base in double-stranded DNA (ds-DNA), nor do they react with uracil or bromocytidine. Weak binding to thymidine, 5-fluorodeoxyuridine, and unsubstituted ss-DNA occurs.     

Determination of the fraction of S-phase cells in root meristems using bromodeoxyuridine labeling

The use of bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) and subsequent immunocytochemical visualization for studying cell proliferation in plant meristems was investigated in Allium cepa L. root-tips. We describe the optimization of an indirect immunoperoxidase method for detecting incorporation of this DNA precursor in pulse-labeled cells. The basic object of this study is to quantify the extent to which the fraction of S-phase cells can reliably be estimated in asynchronous populations. A matrix of parallel labeling schedules with tritiated-thymidine or BrdU was developed, and the labeling indices provided by autoradiography or immunocytochemistry were compared. Thus, 0.5 mM BrdU assured saturation S-phase labeling after an exposure time of 30 min, and the mean length of the S-phase determined under such conditions was similar to that previously reported for this plant system. Interestingly, Feulgen staining did not interfere with subsequent detection of the BrdU probe. This allowed comparative evaluations of the nuclear DNA content by Feulgenmicrodensitometry and the position of a given cell in G1, S or G2 compartments. We also explored the possibility of quantifying BrdU-incorporation in single nuclei by densitometry measurement of the peroxidase label.     

Determination of the fraction of S-phase cells in root meristems using bromodeoxyuridine labeling

The use of bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) and subsequent immunocytochemical visualization for studying cell proliferation in plant meristems was investigated in Allium cepa L. root-tips. We describe the optimization of an indirect immunoperoxidase method for detecting incorporation of this DNA precursor in pulse-labeled cells. The basic object of this study is to quantify the extent to which the fraction of S-phase cells can reliably be estimated in asynchronous populations. A matrix of parallel labeling schedules with tritiated-thymidine or BrdU was developed, and the labeling indices provided by autoradiography or immunocytochemistry were compared. Thus, 0.5 mM BrdU assured saturation S-phase labeling after an exposure time of 30 min, and the mean length of the S-phase determined under such conditions was similar to that previously reported for this plant system. Interestingly, Feulgen staining did not interfere with subsequent detection of the BrdU probe. This allowed comparative evaluations of the nuclear DNA content by Feulgenmicrodensitometry and the position of a given cell in G1, S or G2 compartments. We also explored the possibility of quantifying BrdU-incorporation in single nuclei by densitometry measurement of the peroxidase label.     

Identification of 'Non-Proliferating' B16 Melanoma Cells Using Monoclonal Antibody (Ad203) Against the M1 Subunit of Ribonucleotide Reductase

Abstract. Ribonucleotide reductase catalyses a critical reaction in DNA synthesis. Its M1 subunit is present during all proliferative phases of the cell cycle, but apparently not in the quiescent phase Go. We have used a monoclonal antibody (AD203) directed against the M1 subunit to distinguish immunocytochemically proliferating from non-proliferating cultured B16 mouse melanoma cells during exponential growth. the presumption that AD203 unstained cells constituted a non-proliferating fraction was tested by simultaneously counting the cells that failed to incorporate bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) into DNA during a prolonged BrdU exposure. the proportion of cells which did not incorporate BrdU was found to correlate closely with the proportion not staining with AD203 and therefore presumably lacking the M1 subunit. the respective morphological features of AD203 stained and unstained cells were found not to differ significantly.