Sexual Dimorphism in the Compound Eye of Rhagophthalmus ohbai (Coleoptera: Rhagophthalmidae): I. Morphology and Ultrastructure

The eyes of the winged males and larvi-form, wingless females of the firefly Rhagophthalmus ohbai differ from each other in several respects. Compared with the eyes of the males, those of the females contain fewer (35 versus ca. 3500) and smaller (20 μm versus 24-31 μm) facets and anatomically they are of the apposition type. Their main function appears to be to detect light intensity changes from day to nighttime; resolving power of the female eye must be poor and e-vector discrimination would be absent. The eyes of the males consist of a smaller, dorsal region of ca. 500 om-matidia of about 250 μm length and a larger, ventral region of ca. 2000 ommatidia of about 640 urn length. The microvilli of the dorsal eye region are somewhat wider than those of the ventral region (55 nm versus 45 nm) and are less regularly arranged. A tapetal reflecting layer is only present in the dorsal eye region. The small clear-zone between dioptric apparatus and retina in the dorsal eye region would not allow as good a superposition image to be produced as in the ventral eye region with its 5 times wider clear-zone. The regular orientations of the microvilli in the rhabdoms and the lack of a proper tapetum in the ventral eye region suggest that e-vector discrimination should be possible.     

草地贪夜蛾成虫复眼明暗适应及黄光照射下明适应状态转化率

【目的】蛾类昆虫的趋光性与复眼明暗适应状态的转化有着直接的关系，本研究旨在阐明光照与草地贪夜蛾Spodotera frugiperda复眼明暗适应状态转化的关系。【方法】在光、暗适应条件和不同光照强度黄光照射下，在不同时间段，用相机迅速拍照，观察统计草地贪夜蛾成虫复眼的明暗适应状态及明、暗适应状态转化率。【结果】在明适应状态下，草地贪夜蛾成虫经黄光照射1 h后，随光照强度的增加，复眼明适应状态保持率逐步升高：雄成虫复眼在0.1~0.5 lx时明适应状态保持率为67.77%(有32.23%的转化为暗适应状态与中间状态)，4~6 lx时明适应状态保持率达到100%；雌成虫复眼在7~10 lx时，明适应状态保持率达98.90%。在明适应状态下，经黄光照射3 h后，草地贪夜蛾成虫复眼明适应状态保持率亦随着光照强度的增加逐步升高，在0.1~0.5 lx时雄成虫复眼明适应状态保持率为50.00%,雌成虫为32.23%；在光照强度7~10 lx时，雌雄成虫复眼明适应状态保持率分别为90.00%和100%。在暗适应状态下，草地贪夜蛾成虫经不同光照强度的黄光照射30 min后，成虫复眼向明适应状态逐渐转化：在0.1~0.5 lx光照强度时雌、雄成虫复眼明适应状态转化率均为93.33%；当光照强度达到0.6~0.9 lx时雌成虫复眼的明适应状态转化率达到100%，雄成虫复眼则在1~2 lx时达到100%。【结论】结果说明，草地贪夜蛾成虫有较强的光敏感性，且雌虫对黄光的光敏感性略强于雄虫。     

Ultraviolet and violet light: attractive orientation cues for the Indian meal moth, Plodia interpunctella

The Indian meal moth (IMM), Plodia interpunctella (Hübner) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), engages in long-distance or foraging flights in the twilight hours of the scotophase when blue light dominates the irradiance spectrum of the sky. We tested the hypothesis that IMM uses wavelengths of visible blue/violet light as orientation cues that trigger phototactic responses. In four-choice laboratory experiments, blue light (400–475 nm) was significantly more effective than green (475–600 nm), orange (575–700 nm), or red (590–800 nm) light in attracting males and mated females. In subsequent experiments that tested light emitting diodes (LEDs) emitting peak wavelengths in the blue/violet-light range, the 405-nm 'violet' LED was significantly more effective than the 435-, 450-, or 470-nm 'blue' LED in attracting males as well as virgin and mated females. In electroretinogram recordings, the 405-nm wavelength elicited significantly stronger receptor potentials from female and male eyes than the 350-nm (UV) wavelength, and in a behavioral experiment it significantly enhanced the known attractiveness of UV light. Equal attraction of IMMs to 405-nm LEDs at 600–700 µW/cm² with or without UV light, and significantly stronger attraction to a 405-nm LED than to a 350-nm LED at maximum light intensities, suggest that the deployment of violet instead of UV light could become one of several management tactics for control of IMMs.     

Navigation of Lutzomyia longipalpis (Diptera: Psychodidae) under dusk or starlight conditions

The responses of male and female Lutzomyia longipalpis (Lutz & Neiva) to different wavelengths of light was tested by presenting the sandflies with two light sources simultaneously, a series of test wavelengths between 350-670 nm and a 400 nm control. To test whether L. longipalpis could discriminate between the test and control, three sets of experiments were carried out in which the test wavelengths were presented at higher, equivalent or lower intensity than the control. In all three experiments, ultra-violet (350 nm) and blue-green-yellow (490-546 nm) light was more attractive to L. longipalpis than the control wavelength. However, at low intensity, UV was less attractive, than equivalent or higher intensity UV light. At intensities equivalent to or higher than the control wavelength, ultra-violet light was more attractive than blue-green. Furthermore, at low intensity, green-yellow (546 nm) light was more attractive to males whereas blue-green (490 nm) was more attractive to females. Blue-violet (400 nm) and orange-red (600-670 nm) light were least attractive in all three sets of experiments. Response function experiments indicated that the responses were dependent on both intensity and wavelength and that therefore more than one photoreceptor must be involved in the response. The results indicated that L. longipalpis can discriminate between different wavelengths at different intensities and thus have true colour vision. It also suggests that L. longipalpis may be able to navigate at dusk or under moonlight or starlight conditions using light in the blue-green-yellow part of the spectrum. The difference in response of males and females to light in this region is interesting and may indicate the different ecology of the sexes at night. Overall, these results may have important implications for sandfly trap design.     

A comparative study of spectral sensitivity curves in three diurnal and eight nocturnal species of Japanese fireflies

The spectral properties of the eyes of 3 species of diurnal and 8 species of nocturnal Japanese fireflies, in many cases males and females, were determined by an electroretinographic method. With the exception of Hotaria parvula males, which had a λ_max of 580 nm, almost all species studied possessed a maximum around 500–540 nm. The eyes of diurnal and nocturnal species did not differ significantly in their sensitivity maxima. As in North American species of fireflies (Lall, 1981a,b) congruency existed between visual sensitivity peaks and light emission maxima in Luciola cruciata, L. lateralis and Hotaria parvula. In agreement with Seliger et al. (1982a,b) we conclude that an adaptation of the visual sensitivity to the light produced need not have occurred and that evolutionary adaptation of light emission to an existing ancestral green-sensitivity of the eye is the more likely course of events.     

Sexual dimorphism in the compound eye of the moth Operophtera brumata (Lepidoptera, Geometridae)

Abstract. Brachyptery in female moths is a common phenomenon. This article examines the eyes of the moth Operophtera brumata , in which only the males have wings. Both sexes possess eyes of the superposition type, have facets with corneal nipples, and exhibit eyeglow, but the eye of the male has 2174 facets, measures 725 μm in diameter, and has a clear zone of 112-μm width. That of the female has 1352 facets, measures 557 μm across, and has a 77-μm-wide clear zone. There were no significant differences in rhabdom diameters (10 μm) and tracheal sheath development, but male rhabdoms were significantly longer (85 vs. 65 μm). Dark/light adaptational changes manifested themselves in the positions of the distal screening pigment granules: between the cones during darkness and into the clear zone during light adaptation. The combination of a larger radius of curvature, wider clear zone, and longer rhabdoms gives the males a sensitivity at least twice that of the female. The narrower interommatidial angles of the male (2.8° vs. 3.2°) together with the well-developed tracheal rhabdom sheaths, furthermore, provide the eyes of the males with better resolution. Finally, eye-glow intensity in males diminishes considerably faster in light than it does in females. The differences between males and females appear to reflect their different roles: males begin to search after sunset in and around stands of trees for the pheromone-emitting females, which sit on the trunk of the tree under which they had emerged from their pupal case. Flying males encounter rapid light intensity changes and have to evade obstacles and enemies. The females are considerably more sedentary, but once mated, still seek suitable oviposition sites long after the males have ceased searching for them. During this activity, the females also need visual sensitivity and acuity, but less than the actively flying males.     

基于光学显微镜和扫描电镜的新替库蠓成虫形态观察(双翅目： 蠓科)(英文)

【目的】通过发现更多的形态特征,以实现库蠓属Culicoides近似种的准确鉴定和区分。【方法】利用扫描电镜和光学显微镜观察新替库蠓Culicoides newsteadi Austen成虫的形态特征细节,包括具有重要鉴定意义的结构特征,如两性成虫的复眼、触角、触须、口器、中胸盾板、小盾板、翅、后足胫节、爪和生殖器等结构。【结果】发现新替库蠓雌成虫具有6种触角感器,包括腔锥感器、短毛形感器、长毛形感器、刺形感器、直锥形感器和弯直锥形感器;雌雄成虫的盾斑均呈卵形;雄成虫的阳基侧突端部具复杂分支。雌成虫的复眼连接处距离为1.3个小眼面;雌成虫大颚呈剑状,具14~17枚三角形齿;雄成虫后足胫节具16~19枚端梳。【结论】通过光学显微镜和扫描电镜获得的形态特征不仅为蠓科的分类和系统发育研究提供更多的信息,而且为流行病研究和疾控工作提供更多的帮助,进而为蠓科昆虫形态信息的数字化、立体化和网络化提供资料。     

锈赤扁谷盗成虫趋光行为研究

【目的】研究灯光诱捕技术防治锈赤扁谷盗Cryptolestes ferrugineus(Stephens)的可行性。【方法】在实验室条件下测定了锈赤扁谷盗成虫对不同光源的趋光反应。【结果】锈赤扁谷盗成虫对实验所选取的光源都有一定的趋性。在可见光中,对主波长为575 nm的光源的趋性最强,对430、495、620、530和450 nm光源的趋性依次降低。在紫外光中,对主波长为385 nm的光源的趋性显著高于对主波长为365、375和395 nm的光源;1~10日龄的锈赤扁谷盗成虫,随日龄的增加,成虫趋光性先增强后有所减弱;雌虫的趋光性高于雄虫,且交配状态会影响雌虫和雄虫的趋光性。交配会抑制雄虫的趋光性,但是交配后的雌虫的趋光性增强;短期饥饿处理和灯光经历对害虫趋光性无显著影响。【结论】锈赤扁谷盗成虫对光波长的选择偏好性证实了其灯光诱捕技术的可行性。     

Wing colors of Chrysozephyrus butterflies (Lepidoptera; Lycaenidae): ultraviolet reflection by males

Wing colors of the four species of Chrysozephyrus butterflies were analyzed by a spectrophotometer. As the dorsal wing surface of males showed a strong reflectance when the specimen was tilted, measurements were made by the tilting method. The dorsal wing surface of males which appears green to the human eye reflected UV (315-350 nm) as well as green light (530-550 nm). The reflectance rate of UV to visible green light varied among species with a higher rate for C. hisamatsusanus and C. ataxus, and a lower rate for C. smaragdinus and C. brillantinus. The peak wavelength and the peak height did not shift when the specimen was exposed to direct sunlight at least for 16 hr. Artificial removal of scales by scratching the wing surface decreased reflectance. Blue marks on the forewings of C. brillantinus, C. hisamatsusanus and C. ataxus females reflected UV to visible light of short wavelength, and orange marks on the dorsal surface of the forewing and the ventral surface of the hindwing of C. samaragdinus females showed a higher reflectance at longer wavelengths.     

The optics of tsetse fly eyes in relation to their behaviour and ecology

Abstract The visual acuity of two species of tsetse flies, Glossina morsitans morsitans Westw. and Glossina pallidipes Aust., was investigated. Male G. morsitans eyes have an acute zone in the forward region, with large hexagonal lenses (mean minimum diameter, D=33, SE±0.7 μm), relatively small interommatidial angle (Δ(φ=1.08^o) and angular receptive field of individual ommatidia (Δp) of not less than 1.14^o. A narrow band of square lenses, with intermediate diameter and Δφ, merges with smaller hexagonal lenses in the periphery (24±0.7 μm), with relatively large interommatidial angle (Δφ=3.7^o) and small angular receptive field (Δp = c. 1.6^o). G.pallidipes eyes are similar, except that the lenses in the acute zone are larger than those of G.morsitans , in proportion to their larger body size. Female eyes are not significantly different from male eyes, except that they have a narrower region of binocular overlap (maximum for males = 24^o, for females = 18^o). The eye parameter (p=DΔφ) in the acute zone of male G.morsitans = 0.62, and in the peripheral zone = 1.56. These relatively high values are consistent with fast flight, visual detection of drift due to low wind speeds, mating chases and discrimination of cryptic host animals at high light intensities. The extended region of binocular overlap in males may serve as an early warning system of the approach of potential females. From our estimates, tsetse flies ought to be able to detect small objects against the sky c. 30 min before sunrise and after sunset, and to use their peripheral vision perhaps 15 min earlier and later than this.     

Visual field structure in the Empress Leilia, Asterocampa leilia (Lepidoptera, Nymphalidae): dimensions and regional variation in acuity

Male Empress Leilia butterflies ( Asterocampa leilia) use a sit-and-wait tactic to locate mates. To see how vision might influence male behavior, we studied the morphology, optics, and receptor physiology of their eyes and found the following. (1) Each eye's visual field is approximately hemispherical with at most a 10 degrees overlap in the fields of the eyes. There are no large sexual differences in visual field dimensions. (2) In both sexes, rhabdoms in the frontal and dorsal ommatidia are longer than those in other eye regions. (3) Interommatidial angles are smallest frontally and around the equator of the eye. Minimum interommatidial angles are 0.9-1 degrees in males and 1.3-1.4 degrees in females. (4) Acceptance angles of ommatidia closely match interommatidial angles in the frontal region of the eye. We conclude that vision in these butterflies is mostly monocular and that males have more acute vision than females, especially in the frontal region (large facets, small interommatidial angles, small acceptance angles, long rhabdoms, and a close match between interommatidial angles and acceptance angles). This study also suggests that perched males direct their most acute vision where females are likely to appear but show no eye modifications that appear clearly related to a mate-locating tactic.     

Phortica variegata as an intermediate host of Thelazia callipaeda under natural conditions: evidence for pathogen transmission by a male arthropod vector

Knowledge about Phortica variegata (Drosophilidae, Steganinae), the intermediate host of the eyeworm Thelazia callipaeda (Spirurida, Thelaziidae), is confined to experimental studies. To investigate the role P. variegata plays in the transmission of T. callipaeda under natural conditions, the population dynamics of these flies in the natural environment and their feeding preferences (on vegetables and/or animal lachrymal secretions) were examined. From April to November 2005, a total number of 969 (557 males and 412 females) P. variegata flies were collected weekly in a region of southern Italy with a history of canine thelaziosis. The flies were identified and dissected or subjected to a PCR assay specific for a region within the ribosomal ITS-1 DNA of T. callipaeda. The zoophilic preferences of P. variegata were assessed by collecting flies around the eyes of a person or around a fruit bait. Seven hundred and twenty flies (398 males and 322 females) were dissected under a stereomicroscope; 249 flies (158 males and 91 females) that died prior to the dissection were subjected to molecular investigation. Only P. variegata males were infected with larval T. callipaeda both at dissection (six, 0.83%) and with the specific PCR (seven, 2.81%), representing a total percentage of 1.34% flies infected. Interestingly, only males were collected around the eyes, compared with a male/female ratio of 1:4 around the fruit. This survey indicated that P. variegata males act as intermediate hosts of T. callipaeda under natural conditions in Europe. Both the zoophilic behaviour of P. variegata males on lachrymal secretions and their role as vector of T. callipaeda have been discussed as they represent a peculiarity in medical and veterinary entomology. The synchrony between the fly population dynamics and the biology of the nematode in the definitive host provides an interesting model for exploring the co-evolution of Thelazia spp. with their hosts.     

Diurnal and circadian rhythm in compound eye of cricket (Gryllus bimaculatus): changes in structure and photon capture efficiency

Day-night changes in rhabdom size of compound eyes were investigated in three groups of crickets (Gryllus bimaculatus): nymphs and adult males and females. In both adults and nymphs, the rhabdoms were larger at night than during a day. In adults, the mean rhabdom occupation ratios (RORs) of ommatidial retinulae at midnight were about two times greater than the values at midday. This change contributes to control of the photon capture efficiency (PCE) of the eye according to photic environment. The RORs of adult males at midnight were higher than those of both adult females and nymphs. This suggests that the PCE of the compound eye of adult males is the greatest of all groups. Under constant darkness, day-night changes in ROR were detected only in adult males, but neither in adult females nor in nymphs. On the other hand, no day-night changes were detected in any experimental group under constant light. These results suggest that the change in rhabdom size between day and night is an adaptation to the photic environment that is controlled mainly by the light-dark (day-night) cycle. However, the change in male adults is induced by an endogenous circadian clock.     

Females show greater changes in wing colour with latitude than males in the green‐veined white butterfly,Pieris napi (Lepidoptera: Pieridae)

In butterflies, wing colour may simultaneously be under sexual selection in the context of mating selection and natural selection in the context of thermoregulation. In the present study, we collected mated females of the green‐veined white butterfly (Pieris napi) from locations spanning 960 km of latitude across Fennoscandia, and investigated sex‐specific latitudinal wing colour variation in their offspring raised under identical conditions. We measured wing colour characteristics, including reflectance at wavelengths 300–700 nm and the degree of wing melanization. At all latitudes, females reflected more light in the short wavelengths (< 400 nm) and less in the long wavelengths (> 450 nm), and they were more melanized than males. However, female wing colour varied more with latitude than that of males. Among females, long wavelength reflectance decreased, whereas short wavelength reflectance and melanization increased, towards the north. By contrast, among males, latitudinal variation was found only in the ventral hindwing melanization. These results are consistent with the idea that the balance between natural and sexual selection acting on wing colour changes with latitude differently in males than females. The dark wing colour of females in the north may be a thermoregulatory adaptation, although males may be constrained from evolving the dark dorsal wing colour favoured by natural selection because of constant sexual selection across latitudes. © 2012 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2012, ?? , ??–??.     

Sexual Dimorphism in the Compound Eye of Rhagophthalmus ohbai (Coleoptera: Rhagophthalmidae): II. Physiology and Function of the Eye of the Male

The eyes of male and female Rhagophthalmus ohbai are of very different sizes and possess approximately 3000 and 35 facets, respectively. In the male eye one can distinguish a smaller dorsal region with 500 facets and a larger ventral one with ca. 1800. Ultrastructural differences between them have been described earlier in this journal (Lau and Meyer-Rochow, 2006). Electrophysiological recordings from the two eye areas have now revealed that the ventral region is maximally sensitive to light of 600 nm wavelength, while the dorsal eye region responds maximally to light of 540–560 nm wavelengths. In the dorsal eye region sensitivity to UV-radiation at around 360 nm wavelength, being twice as high as that of the ventral eye region, amounted to ca. one quarter of peak wavelength sensitivity. The regional differences in spectral sensitivity seem to be a reflection of the different tasks of the two eye regions: looking downward to see the yellow light emitted by a female, sensitivity towards longer wavelengths would be advantageous, but looking upward into the twilight sky, sensitivity to shorter wavelength would be a more appropriate adaptation.     

Cave molly females (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Poecilia mexicana</Emphasis>) avoid parasitised males

Cave mollies (Poecilia mexicana) inhabit a dark Mexican cave, where visual communication is impossible. I observed the preference of cave molly females to associate with a non-infected male or a male infected with a pathogenic bacterium (Mycobacterium sp.) which causes the formation of large blisters around the eyes of infected fish. Females preferred to stay near the non-infected male only when the two stimulus males were separated from the female by transparent Plexiglas in light, but not when the males were separated by a wire-mesh in light (where vision was to some extent hindered, but the females perceived non-visual cues) or in darkness (where only non-visual cues were available). I conclude that the visually mediated preference for non-infected males has been maintained during the colonisation of the lightless habitat, but a preference for this trait on the basis of non-visual cues did not evolve. The cave habitat may be poor in pathogens, resulting in low selection pressure to evolve a non-visual preference for males without bacterial infection.Communicated by R.F. Oliveira     

Action spectra of the female's response in the firefly Photinus pyralis (Coleoptera: Lampyridae): evidence for an achromatic detection of the bioluminescent optical signal

Behavioural action spectra of the threshold of the Photinus pyralis female response to light stimuli simulating the bioluminescent optical signal of the conspecific male firefly were determined in the laboratory. The action spectra (Fig. 1) were narrow and peaked in the yellow region of the spectrum. The females responded only to stimuli of wavelengths longer than 480 nm and not to stimuli in the blue (420-460 nm) part of the spectrum. The shape of the function corresponds with (a) the electroretinographic spectral sensitivity function in the long wavelength (520-660 nm) region of the spectrum, (b) the action spectrum of the female response (Fig. 1), (c) the species yellow bioluminescence emission spectrum and (d) the action spectrum of the intracellular response from single retinular cells (Fig. 2) of the compound eyes in the firefly. Such a correspondence suggests that the narrow yellow receptors of the female mediate the detection and processing of the optical signal of the conspecific male. Since the bioluminescent optical signal is processed exclusively by a single receptor class, signal detection is achromatic.     

Sex influences the taxanes content in Taxus baccata

Like other species of the genus Taxus, European yew trees contain taxanes, including paclitaxel (T) and its precursor 10-deacetylbaccatin III (10-DAB). Taxanes are one of the most effective anticancer drugs. This study was undertaken to describe the levels and patterns of taxane variation in the Sudetian region (SW Poland). Paclitaxel (T) and 10-deacetylbaccatin III (10-DAB) concentrations were analysed in five populations. Needles and twigs were analysed from 60 individuals (30 males and 30 females) in each population. In addition, morphometric measurements were taken in the populations to obtain light intensity coefficients (specific leaf area, SLA). High variability in the taxane contents at both intra and interpopulational levels was found. Nevertheless, females had a significantly higher taxane content compared to males. Because taxanes are carbon-based secondary metabolites, females have higher rate of gas exchange of females compared to males. This was probably an adaptation to greater reproductive effort incurred by females. In this regard, female individuals seem to be better for selecting elite cultivars with a higher taxane production. The relationship between light intensity and taxane content was not significant. Shading, important for optimizing crop production, should not reduce the concentration of taxanes.     

Circadian Rhythms of Locomotor Activity in Lycosa tarentula (Araneae, Lycosidae) and the Pathways of Ocular Entrainment

Lycosa tarentula is a ground-living spider that inhabits a burrow where it awaits the appearance of prey or conspecifics. In this study, circadian rhythms of locomotor activity were examined as well as the ocular pathway of entrainment. Thirty-three adult virgin females were examined under constant darkness (DD); all of them exhibited robust circadian rhythms of locomotor activity with a period averaging 24.1h. Fourteen of these spiders were studied afterwards under an LD 12:12 cycle; they usually entrained to in the first or second day, even when the light intensity was as low as 1 lx. During the LD cycle, locomotor activity was generally restrained to the darkness phase, although several animals showed a small amount of diurnal activity. Ten males were also examined under LD; they were also nocturnal, but were much more active than the females. Seven females were examined under constant light (LL); under this they became arrhythmic. Except for the anterior median eyes (OMAs), all the eyes were capable of entraining the locomotor activity to an LD cycle. These results demonstrate that under laboratory conditions and low light intensities locomotor activity of Lycosa tarentula is circadian and in accordance with Aschoff's 'rule'. Only OMAs are unable to entrain the rhythm; the possible localization of circadian clock is therefore discussed.     

The relative performance of pheromone and light traps in monitoring the seasonal activity of both sexes of the eastern hemlock looper, Lambdina fiscellaria fiscellaria

The seasonal flight activity of both sexes of the eastern hemlock looper, Lambdina fiscellaria fiscellaria Guenée (Lepidoptera: Geometridae) was studied during two consecutive years in Quebec and Newfoundland, using light (L), pheromone (P) and combined light and pheromone (LP) traps. Moth density significantly affected the performance of the different traps, with P traps being more effective at low than high density. However, P trap catches decreased just prior to the onset of female captures, probably as a result of competition between traps and virgin calling females. Nearly all females caught in L and LP traps were already mated and even the first females caught had laid at least half of their egg complement. In Quebec under warm nights, the pattern of male activity occurred at different times, with peak P catches being later in the scotophase than those of L traps, but overall similar numbers of males were caught in both traps. In contrast, under cool nights, males were caught early in the night in both P and L traps, suggesting a strong competition effect between traps, although more males were caught in P than L traps overall. In Newfoundland, the pattern of male captures in L and P traps was similar at both high and low temperatures, so competition between trap types would always be high. Under these conditions P traps were more effective than L traps. Irrespective of the region, year or temperature, significantly more males were captured in LP, with the effect of L and P being additive. In both regions, females responded similarly to L and LP traps with peak activity occurring early in the night. Captures of females were lower than those of males under cool temperatures, suggesting that the temperature threshold for flight is higher for females. The use of L and P traps simultaneously and/or in combination is discussed in relation to integrated pest management programs and ecological considerations.