Effect of Cd,Zn, and Pb Compound Pollution on Celery in a Ferric Acrisol

A pot experiment with an orthogonal experimental design L₉(3⁴) was conducted to study the combined effects of Cd, Zn, and Pb on the growth and metal content of celery grown in a ferric acrisol. The uptake of Cd, Zn, and Pb by celery was not only affected by the individual elements, but also by combinations of the elements. The effect of coexisting elements on plant uptake of the heavy metals depended on the concentration ratios of the elements. There is a given ratio where a maximum antagonism or synergism effect occurs. The combinations of elements clearly affected the dry weight of celery and the heavy metal concentration in celery. The removal rate (the ratio of plant total uptake to the total metal content in soil) was in the order of Cd > Zn > Pb, with no obvious difference between the removal rate under single pollution and that under compound pollution.     

镉与锌复合污染对栝楼幼苗生理特性的影响

通过室内盆栽实验,研究镉(Cd)、锌(Zn)复合污染对栝楼(Trichosanthes kirilowii Maxim.)幼苗生理特性的影响.结果显示,随着Cd、Zn浓度的升高,叶绿素a、叶绿素b、总叶绿素、可溶性糖及紫外吸收物含量下降;超氧化物歧化酶(SOD)活性先升高再下降,过氧化物酶(POD)活性及类胡萝卜素含量呈升—降—升趋势;丙二醛(MDA)和可溶性蛋白含量分别呈S"型及倒N"型曲线变化.与对照相比,在不同浓度复合污染条件下,光合色素、可溶性糖、可溶性蛋白、紫外吸收物含量及SOD活性均有所下降,POD活性和MDA含量上升.研究表明,栝楼幼苗对Cd、Zn胁迫具有一定的耐受力,但高浓度Cd、Zn对幼苗正常生长有较为显著的抑制作用.     

重金属镉、锌在菹草叶细胞中的超微定位观察

水环境污染中十分突出的是重金属的污染 ,主要来源为流入物、渗漏和大气沉降 (Ｌａｒｃｈｅｒ ,1995 )。由于重金属污染物不但不能被微生物所分解 ,而且能在生物体内富集 ,并通过水生食物链的生物放大作用而对高营养级的生物甚至人类造成危害 ,因此日益引起人们的特别关注。许多研究从超微结构损伤和生理生化的角度研究了重金属对植物的毒害机制。施国新等 (2 0 0 0 )观察了重金属汞、镉污染对水生植物黑藻叶细胞的超微结构损伤。彭鸣等 (1991)研究了重金属镉、铅诱导的玉米超微结构的变化。李荣春 (2 0 0 0 )研究了Ｃｄ、Ｐｂ及其复合污染…     

小球藻对水溶液中Zn2+、Cd2+的吸附

对小球藻生物吸附Zn^2 ,Cd^2 的影响因素进行了研究,发现小球藻对Zn^2 ,Cd^2 的生物吸附主要经历了快速的物理吸附和缓慢的化学吸附两个步骤;pH值是影响Zn^2 ,Cd^2 生物吸附的一个重要因素,pH值为6-7时,小球藻对Zn^2 ,Cd^2 的去除率较高,在实验条件下去除率可达87%以上;研究还表明,小球藻干粉比新鲜藻能富集更多的Zn^2 ,Cd^2 。用Freundlich方程模拟吸附等温线,拟合良好。     

伴矿景天-水稻轮作及磷修复剂对水稻锌镉吸收的影响

采用盆栽试验,将锌镉超积累植物伴矿景天与镉低积累水稻中香1号轮作种植于重金属污染土壤,并向土壤添加钙镁磷肥和磷矿粉,研究两种磷修复剂对伴矿景天和镉低积累水稻生长及地上部重金属积累性的影响.盆栽试验结果表明,在轻污染土壤上施用50 g·kg^-1磷矿粉时伴矿景天地上部的Zn、Cd吸收量分别达到每盆11.5 和0.79 mg,效果好于施用4 g·kg^-1钙镁磷肥处理.在重金属污染土壤上种植伴矿景天使后茬水稻地上部Zn、Cd浓度上升,但钙镁磷肥的施用显著降低了水稻体内的Zn、Cd积累量.种植伴矿景天后添加钙镁磷肥稳定调控剂对土壤中水溶态及NH₄OAc提取态Zn、Cd的稳定效果明显优于磷矿粉,且在高污染土壤上效果更佳.田间试验结果显示,施用钙镁磷肥不仅可增加水稻产量,且可一定程度上降低水稻地上部的Zn、Cd吸收量.     

东南景天对锌、镉复合污染的反应及其对锌、镉的吸收和积累特性

Sedum alfredii Hance has been identified as a new Zn-hyperaccumulator native to China. In this study, responses and metal accumulation of S. alfredii were examined under Zn/Cd complex polluted conditions. The results showed that optimal growth of S. alfredii in terms of the maximum dry matter yield was observed at Zn/Cd complex level of 500/100 祄ol/L. Plant cadmium (Cd) or zinc (Zn) concentrations increased with increasing Cd or Zn supply. During the 20 d treatment, the highest Cd concentration in the leaves reached 12.1 g/kg at Zn /Cd level of 50/400 祄ol/L and that of Zn in the stems was 23.2 g/kg at Zn/Cd level of 1 000/50 祄ol/L. The distribution of Cd in different plant parts decreased in the order: leaf ＞ stem≥ root, whereas that of Zn was: stem ＞ leaf ≥ root. The accumulation of Cd and Zn in the shoots and roots of S. afredii increased with the increasing of Zn/Cd supply levels, peaked at Zn/Cd levels of 250/400 and 500/100 祄ol/L, respectively. The highest Cd and Zn uptake by the shoots was approximately 5 and 11 mg/plant, and was over 20 and 10 times higher than those in the roots, respectively. Zn supply at levels ≤ 500 祄ol/L increased plant Cd concentrations, whereas high Zn supply decreased root Cd but did not affect leaf Cd concentrations in S. alfredii. Low Cd supply increased Zn concentration in the leaves, but Cd supply higher than 50 祄ol/L considerably reduced root Zn concentrations, especially at low Zn level. These results indicate that S. alfredii can tolerate high Zn/Cd complex levels and has an extraordinary ability to hyperaccumulate not only Zn but also Cd. It could provide a new valuable plant material for understanding the mechanisms responsible for co-hyperaccumulation of Zn and Cd as well as for phytoremediation of the Cd/Zn complex polluted soils.     

重金属Cd、Zn、Cu、Pb对土壤微生物和酶活性的影响

采用室内培养实验(25℃),研究了不同培养时间下重金属Cd、Zn、Cu、Pb(浓度分别为50,800,400,800mg.kg-1)污染对土壤微生物和酶活性的影响。结果表明,土壤蔗糖酶、过氧化氢酶和脱氢酶活性随着培养时间的增加而显著下降,在培养20d的时候达到最小值,然后酶活性缓慢升高。Cu对脲酶活性以及Cd对酸性磷酸酶和脲酶活性的抑制作用随时间增加而增加。土壤微生物生物量碳、细菌、真菌和放线菌数量随培养时间的增加均表现出先降低后升高的变化趋势。Cd和Cu对微生物生物量氮的抑制作用则随着培养时间的增加而增强,在培养30d时微生物生物量氮到达最低值,分别较培养10天减少了12.6%和16.5%。     

2D Rhombus-grid networks constructed from vanadium-substituted Keggin-type polyoxomolybdophosphates and Cd/Zn complex fragments

Two 2D rhombic grid-like organic-inorganic hybrid compounds [{M(2,2′-bpy)₂}₂{PMo₁₁VO₄₀}] (M = Cd(1), Zn(2); bpy = 2,2′-bipyridine) have been hydrothermally synthesized and characterized by elemental analysis, IR spectroscopy, TG analysis, luminescence spectroscopy, X-ray powder diffraction and single-crystal X-ray diffraction. They are isomorphic and their structures can be considered that the Keggin-heteropolyanion [PMo₁₁VO₄₀]⁴⁻ are bridged by {M(2,2′-bpy)₂} groups through the O-M-O bridges into a 2D covalent network. It is noteworthy that the adjacent layers stack each other to form 3D supermolecular structure via extended C-H?O interaction between Keggin-anions and 2,2′-bpy ligands of different layers. Furthermore, the electrochemical behavior of 1-CPE (1-modified carbon paste electrode) and 2-CPE and their electrocatalytic reduction of nitrite were investigated.     

Cd2+ 、Zn2+单一及复合胁迫对凤眼莲根质膜3种氧化还原酶活性的影响

采用水培法研究了不同浓度Cd2+ 、Zn2+单一及复合胁迫(0.05和0.50 mmol·L-1 Cd2+,0.5和5.0 mmol·L-1 Zn2+)对凤眼莲[Eichhornia crassipes (Mart. ) Solms]幼苗根质膜3种氧化还原酶[NADH氧化酶、Fe(CN)63-还原酶和EDTA-Fe3+还原酶]活性的影响. 结果表明, Cd2+ 、 Zn2+单一及复合胁迫对凤眼莲根质膜NADH氧化酶、Fe(CN)63-还原酶及EDTA-Fe3+还原酶活性的影响效应有明显的差异.0.05或0.50 mmol·L-1 Cd2+单一胁迫处理20 h可使凤眼莲根质膜3种氧化还原酶活性均较对照显著降低(P≤0.05),0.5或5.0 mmol·L-1 Zn2+单一胁迫20 h可导致凤眼莲根质膜NADH氧化酶和EDTA-Fe3+还原酶活性也均较对照显著降低(P≤0.05).随胁迫时间的延长,Cd2+ 、 Zn2+单一及复合胁迫处理均可使凤眼莲根质膜氧化还原酶活性增强,胁迫处理20 d时凤眼莲根质膜3种氧化还原酶活性均高于胁迫20 h的活性.Cd2+-Zn2+复合胁迫对凤眼莲根质膜3种氧化还原酶活性的影响效应因作用时间和胁迫浓度的不同而有一定的差异;在胁迫20 h时,Cd2+与Zn2+之间对凤眼莲根质膜3种氧化还原酶活性的作用关系较复杂,因胁迫浓度的不同表现出协同或拮抗的关系;胁迫20 d时,Cd2+与Zn2+对凤眼莲根质膜3种氧化还原酶活性的复合影响表现出明显的拮抗关系.研究结果显示,Cd2+ 、 Zn2+对凤眼莲根质膜氧化还原酶的复合作用效应与Cd2+和Zn2+的浓度比例及胁迫时间均相关.     

Interaction of Cd and Zn during uptake and loss in the polychaete Capitella capitata: Whole body and subcellular perspectives

The interaction between Cd and Zn in aquatic organisms is known to be highly variable. The purpose of this study was to use a subcellular compartmentalization approach to examine Cd and Zn interactions in the deposit-feeding polychaete Capitella capitata (sp. I). Laboratory-reared C. capitata were co-exposed to Cd (background or 50 μg Cd l^− 1) and Zn (background or 86 μg Zn l^− 1) with ¹⁰⁹Cd and ⁶⁵Zn as radiotracers for 1 week. After the 1-week uptake period, subsets of worms were allowed to depurate accumulated metals for an additional 1 week. Worms from both phases (uptake and loss) were then subjected to subcellular fractionation to determine the compartmentalization of metals as metal-sensitive fractions [MSF — organelles and heat-denaturable proteins (HDP)] and biologically detoxified metals [BDM — heat-stable proteins (HSP) and metal-rich granules (MRG)]. Uptake and loss of Cd and Zn in C. capitata at the whole body level were similar at bkgd-Cd/bkgd-Zn, with worms depurating the majority of accumulated metal (∼ 75% Cd and ∼ 64% Zn). When exposure of Zn or Cd was increased (bkgd-Cd/86-Zn; bkgd-Zn/50-Cd), uptake of background levels of Cd or Zn, respectively, was suppressed by ∼ 50%. These accumulated metals, however, were retained during the loss phase resulting in ∼ 40-50% greater Cd and Zn whole body tissue burdens than those of bkgd-Cd/bkgd-Zn worms. Beyond exhibiting similar patterns of uptake and loss at the whole body level, Cd and Zn behaved similarly at the subcellular level. Under background levels (bkgd-Cd/bkgd-Zn), after uptake, worms partitioned a majority of Cd (∼ 65%) and Zn (∼ 55%) to the HSP and organelles fractions. The HDP and MRG fractions contained less than ∼ 6% of both metals. Following depuration, at bkgd-Cd/bkgd-Zn, Cd and Zn were lost from all subcellular fractions; loss from HSP was the greatest contributor to whole body loss. When exposed to elevated concentrations of Zn or Cd, the suppression in uptake of bkgd-Cd or bkgd-Zn observed in whole body uptake was largely due to suppressions in the storage of Cd and Zn to HSP. These results suggest that Cd-Zn interactions reduce partitioning of both Cd and Zn to HSP, indicating that metal-binding proteins such as metallothioneins play a key role in these interactions.     

Distribution of Toxic Trace Metals Zn,Cd, Pb,and Cu in Tirupati Soils,India

The concentrations of toxic trace metals in the soil samples collected from Tirupati, India, have been determined using differential pulse anodic stripping voltammetry (DPASV). The total metal concentrations of the soils in the study area were in the following ranges: 19.5 to 23.6 mg of Zn, 0.032 to 0.036 mg of Cd, 15.8 to 18.9 mg of Pb, and 19.0 to 23.4 mg of Cu per kg soil. Analysis of standard reference material IAEA-SOIL-5 indicates good accuracy. Recoveries were nearly quantitative for all elements studied. Comparison of the average metal concentration levels with world averages indicates an elevated value for Pb. The applicability of this method was crosschecked with AAS and the results were in good agreement.     

Arabis gemmifera is a hyperaccumulator of Cd and Zn

Hyperaccumulators are essential for phytoremediation of heavy metals. In Europe and North America, many studies have been conducted to find more effective plants for phytoremediation of various pollutants. In Japan, this field of research has just recently come more into focus. A type of fern in Japan, Athyrium yokoscense, is well known as a hyperaccumulator of Cd and Zn. However, it is not suitable for phytoremediation because it is a summer green and grows slowly. Therefore, in order to find hyperaccumulators other than from A. yokoscense, we surveyed plants growing at polluted sites in Japan. We found that the Brassicae Arabis gemmifera is a hyperaccumulator of Cd and Zn, with phytoextraction capacities almost equal to Thlaspi caerulescens.     

锌对镉胁迫下马蔺生长、镉积累及生理抗性的影响

通过溶液培养研究了不同浓度锌(Zn)对镉(Cd)胁迫下马蔺(Iris lacteavar. chinen-sis)生长、Cd积累及抗氧化酶活性等的影响.结果表明:加入1~100mg.L-1Zn后,Cd胁迫下马蔺地上部Cd含量变化不大,而地下部Cd含量显著增加并呈先增后降的趋势;1mg.L-1Zn处理下马蔺地下部Cd含量最高,比对照显著增加51.4%;Zn浓度高于1mg.L-1后Cd含量均出现不同程度的下降,但仍高于对照.与单独Cd处理(10mg.L-1)相比,添加低浓度Zn(1~10mg.L-1)后,马蔺地上部生物量和叶绿素含量呈增加趋势,丙二醛(MDA)含量降低;在10mg.L-1Zn处理下,叶绿素a、b含量达到峰值,分别增加5.21%和22.27%,MDA含量降低25.46%,表明低浓度Zn缓解了Cd对马蔺的毒害.随Zn浓度的增加,Zn对Cd毒害的缓解作用逐渐降低,当溶液中Zn达到一定浓度(100mg.L-1)时,马蔺毒害加重,其生物量、叶绿素含量均下降,MDA含量显著增加.在试验胁迫浓度范围内超氧化物歧化酶(SOD)、过氧化物酶(POD)活性始终呈增加趋势,表明马蔺在受到Cd胁迫及Cd-Zn共存的条件下SOD和POD起着重要的抗氧化保护作用.     

Evaluation of Organic and Inorganic Amendments on Maize Growth and Uptake of Cd and Zn from Contaminated Paddy Soils

Pot and field experiments were conducted to investigate the effects of soil amendments (cow manure, rice straw, zeolite, dicalcium phosphate) on the growth and metal uptake (Cd, Zn) of maize (Zea mays) grown in Cd/Zn contaminated soil. The addition of cow manure and rice straw significantly increased the dry biomass, shoot and root length, and grain yield of maize when compared with the control. In pot study, cow manure, rice straw, and dicalcium phosphate all proved effective in reducing Cd and Zn concentrations in shoots and roots. Cd and Zn concentrations in the grains of maize grown in field study plots with cow manure and dicalcium phosphate amendments to highly contaminated soil (Cd 36.5 mg kg^?1 and Zn 1520.8 mg kg^?1) conformed to acceptable standards for animal feed. Additionally both cow manure and dicalcium phosphate amendments resulted in the significant decrease of Cd and Zn concentrations in shoots of maize.     

Cd、Zn复合污染对水车前叶绿素含量和活性氧清除系统的影响

主要研究了重金属Cd、Zn单一及复合污染对水车前叶绿素含量和活性氧清除系统的影响。超氧化物歧化酶 (SOD)、过氧化物酶 (POD)、过氧化氢酶 (CAT)活性都在 0 1mg·L-1Cd处理浓度时达到峰值 ,随培养浓度的增加 ,活性下降。叶绿素含量则随处理的浓度的上升而呈递减趋势。在各Cd处理梯度中加入Zn后 ,随加入Zn浓度的增大 ,上述各指标与单一Cd处理差异显著性增强 ,表明Zn增强了Cd的毒害作用 ,显示出协同作用的趋势     

Opportunities and feasibilities for biotechnological improvement of Zn, Cd or Ni tolerance and accumulation in plants

Metals contaminate the soil when present in high concentrations causing soil and ultimately environmental pollution. “Phytoremediation” is the use of plants to remove pollutants from contaminated environments. Plants tightly regulate their internal metal concentrations in a process called “metal homeostasis”. Some species have evolved extreme tolerance and accumulation of Zn, Cd and Ni as a way to adapt to exposure to these metals. Such traits are beneficial for phytoremediation, however, most natural metal hyperaccumulator species are not adapted to agriculture and have low yields. A wealth of knowledge has been generated regarding metal homeostasis in plants, including hyperaccumulators, which can be used in phytoremediation of Zn, Cd and Ni. In this review, we describe the current state of Zn, Cd and Ni physiology in plants and the underlying molecular mechanisms. The ways to efficiently utilize this information in designing high biomass metal accumulator plants are discussed. The potential and application of genetic modification has extended our understanding about the mechanisms in plants dealing with the metal environment and has paved the way to achieve the goal of understanding metal physiology and to apply the knowledge for the containment and clean up of metal contaminated soils.     

Metal accumulation and metallothionein in brown trout, Salmo trutta, from two Norwegian rivers differently contaminated with Cd, Cu and Zn

In this work we have studied the accumulation of heavy metals in two brown trout (Salmo trutta) populations in their natural environment and the participation of metal binding to metallothionein (MT) in this process. Cd, Cu and Zn concentrations, total MT (including Cu MT) and Cd/Zn MT were measured in the gills, liver and kidney of trout inhabiting two rivers, one Cu-contaminated and the other Cd/Zn-contaminated, located at Røros, Central Norway. In both populations, high levels of Cu were found in the liver, whereas Cd was accumulated in liver and particularly in the kidney. The proportions of Cd/Zn MT and Cu MT in liver and kidney, but not in gills, reflected the accumulated and the environmental concentrations of these metals. The total Cu MT concentrations in the investigated tissues, however, were highest in trout from the river with the lowest ambient Cu concentration. It is suggested that MTs are of less importance in Cu-acclimated trout. The data also suggest that acclimation to a Cu-rich environment involves reduced Cu accumulation or increased Cu elimination. In trout from the Cd-rich environment, this metal was mainly bound to MT, whereas in trout from the Cu-rich environment Cd was also associated with non-MT proteins. These findings emphasize the importance to determine both Cd/Zn MT and Cu MT levels, when the participation of this protein in metal handling in trout tissues is investigated.     

镉胁迫对紫花苜蓿幼苗生理特性和镉富集的影响

以"甘农三号"紫花苜蓿幼苗为材料,在水培条件下,探究了在10 d内不同浓度(0～2.0 mmol·L^-1)镉(Cd)胁迫对其根长、茎长、生物量、叶绿素和丙二醛(MDA)含量、超氧化物歧化酶(SOD)和过氧化物酶(POD)活性、Cd富集及其亚细胞分布的影响。结果表明:低浓度(0.125 mmol·L^-1) Cd能促进幼苗根和茎的生长,增加叶片叶绿素含量,较高浓度(0.5～2.0 mmol·L^-1) Cd显著抑制幼苗根和茎的生长,叶绿素及生物量显著降低; Cd胁迫使MDA含量显著增加,而SOD和POD活性显著增强,其中Cd胁迫浓度为0.5mmol·L^-1时,SOD和POD活性达到最大值,这可能是植物对环境胁迫的一种应激保护反应; Cd在各亚细胞组分中的含量依次为细胞壁>细胞质>线粒体>叶绿体,且均随Cd胁迫浓度的升高而增加。当Cd胁迫浓度为0.125 mmol·L^-1时,水培10 d的紫花苜蓿幼苗单株地上部对Cd的净化率最高可达0.214%,而整盆植株在单位体积内对Cd的净化率最高可达15.5%;当Cd胁迫浓度为2.0 mmol·L^-1时,紫花苜蓿幼苗地上部Cd含量达89.36μg·g-1。这些结果表明紫花苜蓿对Cd具有很强的富集能力,虽未达到Cd超富集植物的临界标准,但从植株生物量、耐Cd能力、富集Cd量及对Cd的净化率等方面综合考虑,紫花苜蓿在Cd污染土壤的植物修复中具备良好的应用价值。     

Cd AND Zn TOLERANCE AND ACCUMULATION BY SEDUM JINIANUM IN EAST CHINA

Field survey, hydroponic culture, and pot experiments were carried out to examine and characterize cadmium (Cd) and zinc (Zn) uptake and accumulation by Sedum jinianum, a plant species native to China. Shoot Cd and Zn concentrations in S. jinianum growing on a lead/Zn mine area reached 103–478 and 4165–8349 mg kg^?1 (DM), respectively. The shoot Cd concentration increased with the increasing Cd supply, peaking at 5083 mg kg^?1 (DM) when grown in nutrient at a concentration of 100 μmol L^?1 for 32 d, and decreased as the solution concentration increased from 200 to 400 μmol L^?1. The shoot-to-root ratio of plant Cd concentrations was > 1 when grown in solution Cd concentrations ≤ 200 μmol L^?1. Foliar, stem, and root Zn concentrations increased linearly with the increasing Zn level from 1 to 9600 μmol L^?1. The Zn concentrations in various plant parts decreased in the order roots > stem > leaves, with maximum concentrations of 19.3, 33.8, and 46.1 g kg^?1 (DM), respectively, when plants were grown at 9600 μmol Zn L^?1 for 32 d. Shoot Cd concentrations reached 16.4 and 79.8 mg kg^?1 (DM) when plants were grown in the pots of soil with Cd levels of 2.4 mg kg^?1 and 9.2 mg kg^?1, respectively. At soil Zn levels of 619 and 4082 mg kg^?1, shoot Zn concentrations reached 1560 and 15,558 mg kg^?1 (DM), respectively. The results indicate that S. jinianum is a Cd hyperaccumulator with a high capacity to accumulate Zn in the shoots.     

高浓度镉、锌及其复合作用对烟草抗氧化系统的影响

采用水培方法,研究高浓度镉(0.1 mmol·L^-1 Cd²⁺)、锌(0.15 mmol·L^-1 Zn²⁺)及其复合作用(0.1 mmol·L^-1 Cd²⁺+0.15 mmol·L^-1Zn²⁺)对烟草种子的萌发率、幼苗叶片活性氧(ROS)水平、抗氧化物浓度、抗氧化酶活性及膜脂过氧化程度的影响.结果表明: 单因子条件下,与对照相比,高浓度镉、锌处理烟草种子萌发率降低;叶片超氧自由基(O₂^-· )产生速率与过氧化氢(H₂O₂)含量升高;过氧化氢酶(CAT)、抗坏血酸过氧化物酶(APX)、脱氢抗化血酸还原酶(DHAR)、单脱氢抗坏血酸还原酶(MDAR)和谷胱甘肽还原酶(GR)活性升高;谷胱甘肽(GSH)含量及其与氧化型谷胱甘肽比值(GSH/GSSG)下降;丙二醛(MDA)含量升高.与镉、锌单因子处理相比,镉、锌复合处理的烟草种子萌发率显著升高;O₂^-· 产生速率、H₂O₂和MDA含量降低;CAT、APX、MDAR活性在处理末期升高.镉、锌胁迫对烟草可造成生理水平上的损伤,且毒性效应随着处理时间的延长而增强.镉、锌复合作用可缓解镉、锌单因子胁迫对烟草幼苗的毒害.