Genetic drift and anthropometric variation in Ireland

The effect of genetic drift on the genetic structure of seven Irish populations was investigated using anthropometric data collected during the 1890s on 259 adult males. These populations ranged in size from 769 to 3757, were relatively stable over time, and were located within 119 km of one another. Two populations are known to have experienced considerable English admixture. Data on ten anthropometric variables (three body measures and seven craniofacial measures) were adjusted for age and used to compute a relationship (R) matrix. The R matrix was converted into a distance measure and compared with a potential genetic drift distance measure, defined as (1/Ni + 1/Nj), where Ni and Nj are the effective population sizes of groups i and j (derivation of this formula is presented). Distances were rank-transformed, and the correlation between their pairwise elements was computed using matrix permutation methods to assess significance. Under the hypothesis that drift affects anthropometric variation, these correlations are expected to be positive. The correlation between anthropometric distance and potential genetic drift distance is 0.123, which is not significantly different from 0 (P = 0.368). When a multiple regression model is used to adjust for geographic distance and English admixture, the partial correlation (0.369) is significant (p = 0.021). As part of further analysis of the genetic structure of these populations, the same analyses were repeated using a distance matrix derived from surname frequencies. The correlation of surname distance and potential genetic drift distance is 0.164, which is not significant (p = 0.264). When the multiple regression model is applied, the correlation is 0.401, which is borderline significant (p = 0.055). These results show the influence of genetic drift, local migration, and admixture on Irish population structure.     

Anthropometric variation among Bering Sea natives

Recent research indicates that anthropometrics can be used to study microevolutionary forces acting on humans. We examine the use of morphological traits in reconstructing the population history of Aleuts and Eskimos of the Bering Sea. From 1979 to 1981, W. S. Laughlin measured a sample of St. Lawrence Island Eskimos and Pribilof Island Aleuts. These samples included adult participants from St. George and St. Paul in the Pribilof Islands and from Gambell and Savoonga on St. Lawrence Island. The Relethford-Blangero method was used to examine the phylogenetic relationship between Aleuts and Eskimos. Anthropometric measurements for Native North Americans (measured by Boas and a team of trained anthropometrists in 1890-1904) and Native Mesoamericans (compiled from the literature for 1898-1952) were used for comparison. A principal components analysis of means for measurements and a neighbor-joining tree were constructed using Euclidean distances. All these tests revealed the same strong relationship among the focus populations. The R matrix from the Relethford-Blangero method clusters Aleuts and Eskimos separately and accounts for 97.3% of the variation in the data. Phenotypic variation within the population is minimal and therefore minimum F(ST) values are low. Genetic distances were compared to a Euclidean distance matrix of anthropometric measurements using a Mantel test and gave a high but not significant correlation. Our results provide evidence of a close phylogenetic relationship between Aleut and Eskimo populations in the Bering Sea. However, it is apparent that history has affected the relationship among the populations. Despite previous findings of higher European admixture in Gambell (based on blood group markers) than in Savoonga, Savoonga has greater within-group variation in anthropometric measurements. Anthropometrics reveal a close relationship between Gambell and St. Paul as a result of European admixture. The St. George population was the most divergent of the populations, indicating that it diverged from the Eskimos and St. Paul because of the compounding effects of genetic drift and limited European gene flow. These findings are in agreement with previous anthropometric and genetic studies of the Aleut and Eskimo populations and support the utility of anthropometrics in inferring population history and structure.     

Relationship between 17 Venezuelan counties estimated through communality of surnames

The coefficients of relationship and the Euclidean distances between 17 Venezuelan counties were estimated based on the frequency distribution of surnames obtained from the 1984 Venezuelan register of electors. In general, the coefficients of relationship between counties within the same state were higher than those between counties from different states. Euclidean distances exhibited the opposite relationship. Spearman's correlation coefficients for 136 pairs of counties were estimated between geographic and Euclidean distances (r = 0.41), geographic distance and coefficient of relationship (r = -0.44) and between Euclidean distance and coefficient of relationship (r = -0.48). The effect of partial geographic isolation on the frequency distribution of surnames is shown in the State of Falcón, where an isthmus separates two counties of the peninsula from two others on the mainland, and in Mérida, where the Venezuelan Andes separates three counties from the rest of the country. Our results suggest that Euclidean distances are less influenced by common surnames than the coefficients of relationship. They also indicate that in Venezuela a high proportion of the population has remained sedentary until recently, and this gives rise to the focal distribution of some surnames.     

Geostatistics and spatial analysis in biological anthropology

A variety of methods have been used to make evolutionary inferences based on the spatial distribution of biological data, including reconstructing population history and detection of the geographic pattern of natural selection. This article provides an examination of geostatistical analysis, a method used widely in geology but which has not often been applied in biological anthropology. Geostatistical analysis begins with the examination of a variogram, a plot showing the relationship between a biological distance measure and the geographic distance between data points and which provides information on the extent and pattern of spatial correlation. The results of variogram analysis are used for interpolating values of unknown data points in order to construct a contour map, a process known as kriging. The methods of geostatistical analysis and discussion of potential problems are applied to a large data set of anthropometric measures for 197 populations in Ireland. The geostatistical analysis reveals two major sources of spatial variation. One pattern, seen for overall body and craniofacial size, shows an east-west cline most likely reflecting the combined effects of past population dispersal and settlement. The second pattern is seen for craniofacial height and shows an isolation by distance pattern reflecting rapid spatial changes in the midlands region of Ireland, perhaps attributable to the genetic impact of the Vikings. The correspondence of these results with other analyses of these data and the additional insights generated from variogram analysis and kriging illustrate the potential utility of geostatistical analysis in biological anthropology.     

Surname distributions and their association with Y-chromosome markers in the Aleutian Islands

We examine surname distribution, origin, and association with Y-chromosome haplogroups in native communities from the Aleutian archipelago. The underlying hypothesis is that surnames and Y-chromosome haplogroups should be associated because both are paternally inherited markers. We used Lasker's coefficient of relationship through isonymy (R(ib) ) to identify the distribution of 143 surnames in the Aleutian Islands. The geographic distribution of surnames was explored both through frequency distribution and through the use of Mantel tests. Multidimensional scaling, chi-square, and Mantel tests were used to examine the relationship between surname and Y-chromosome markers. Overall, we observed that the distribution of surnames in the Aleutian archipelago is culturally driven rather than being one of paternal inheritance. Surnames follow a gradient from east to west, with high frequencies of Russian surnames found in western Aleut communities and high levels of non-Russian surnames found in eastern Aleut communities. A nonsignificant correlation (r = -0.0132; P = 0.436) was found between distance matrices based on haplogroups of the nonrecombining portion of the Y chromosome and surnames, although an association was found between non-Russian surnames and the predominantly non-Russian haplogroups (R1b, I1a, and I).     

Gene flow and variation in stature and craniofacial dimensions among indigenous populations of southern Mexico, Guatemala, and Honduras

Populations with histories of outbreeding tend to be taller even in the face of seemingly unchanged health and nutritional circumstances, while inbreeding generally results in a negative correlation between body dimensions and level of inbreeding. Populations that have experienced a positive secular trend in stature and maturation typically have histories of higher outbreeding rates in combination with improved nutritional, health, and economic conditions, suggesting a genetic-environment interaction. In general, Middle American Indians have not experienced a secular trend in stature, nor a substantial increase in their standard of living, but they have experienced varying degrees of admixture with Spanish and African populations since the Spanish Conquest. The relationship between estimated gene flow and variation in several anthropometric dimensions is thus considered in indigenous Mesoamerican populations. Available data on height, sitting height, craniofacial dimensions, and admixture rate of Indian populations from southern Mexico, Guatemala, and Honduras were assembled from the literature. The population mean data on 3,371 adults from 23 populations for males and 18 for females were analyzed by regression with anthropometry as the dependent variable, and log10 of admixture as the independent variable. Admixture was less than or equal to 28.9% in this study and is suggestive of a primarily traditional Indian cultural and economic base. The results suggest that populations with higher admixture tend to be taller, and that the increase in stature is due to greater subischial length in both sexes. A decrease in nasion-menton height, and an increase in nasal breadth, nasal height, and the nasal index is suggested for the dimensions of the craniofacial complex.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Airport noise exposure and the postnatal growth of children

To determine whether chronic exposure to airport noise affects children, a study was conducted of the physical growth of children, aged 5-13 years, from two communities, one exposed to airport noise (n = 148) and another, not exposed (n = 102). Ten standard anthropometric measurements were made according to U.S. Health Examination Survey guidelines, and information on the social and biological characteristics of each family was collected in interviews. Hotelling's T2-tests were performed comparing the noise-exposed and nonnoise-exposed samples. There was no significant difference between the sample for measurements of social and biological characteristics of the families (including socioeconomic status and maternal reproductive history). Parental anthropometrics differed significantly (T2 = 24.32, P = 0.0001) as did child anthropometrics (T2 = 21.01, P = 0.032). For the child anthropometrics, noise-exposed children's slightly smaller measures of body bulk, together with their larger facial breadths, contributed to the significant T2. When the entire sample (n = 250) was analyzed by multiple linear regression, noise exposure was a significant predictor only of male triceps and subscapular skinfolds. For these two variables, and most other anthropometrics, however, the beta coefficients were negative for both sexes. In order to include information on the covariance structure among all variables, a canonical correlation analysis was performed. Noise exposure loaded negatively on the third canonical variate and was paired with positively loaded measures of body bulk. Taken together, the three analyses suggest that while there is some evidence for a slight effect of airport noise on measures of body bulk for males in this sample, most measures of postnatal growth for both males and females were unaffected by the noise levels experienced.     

The names of Spain: a study of the isonymy structure of Spain

In order to estimate the isonymy structure of Spain, we studied surname distribution in 283 Spanish towns based on 3.625 million telephone users selected from 6.328 million users, downloaded from a commercial CD-ROM which contains all 13 million users in the country. Since in Spain the surname is made by the paternal and the maternal surname, it was possible to classify surnames according to parental origin. Two matrices of isonymy distances, one for paternal and one for maternal surnames, were constructed and tested for correlation with geographic distance. For the whole of Spain, Euclidean distance was significantly but weakly correlated with geographic distance both for paternal and maternal surnames, with r = 0.205 +/- 0.013 and r = 0.263 +/- 0.012, respectively. Two dendrograms of the 283 sampled towns were built from the two matrices of Euclidean distance. They are largely colinear. Four main clusters identified by the dendrograms are correlated with geography. Given the surname structure of Spain, we were able to calculate from isonymy and for each town 1). total or expressed inbreeding, 2). random or expected inbreeding, and 3). local inbreeding. Total inbreeding, F(IT), was highest in the North Atlantic regions and lowest along the Mediterranean Coast. The lowest levels were found in Andalusia, Catalunyia, Valencia, and Navarra. Random inbreeding, F(ST), had a similar geographical pattern. Local inbreeding, F(IS), was relatively uniform in the whole of Spain. In towns, random inbreeding dominates over local inbreeding. From the analysis, it emerges that the northwestern area of Spain is the most inbred.     

Surnames in Texas: a population study through isonymy

To study the isonymy structure of Texas, we analyzed the surname distributions of 3.6 million telephone users registered for the year 1996 in 232 towns distributed in the 7 regions of the state. The number of different surnames was 235,740. Matrices of isonymy distances between towns and between geographic regions were constructed and tested for correlation with geographic distance. We found that isonymy distances between the seven regions showed borderline or no correlation with geographic distance, with r = 0.089 +/- 0.232, r = 0.492 +/- 0.232, and r = 0.337 +/- 0.232 for Lasker's, Euclidean, and Nei's distances, respectively. Isonymy distances between towns were significantly correlated with geographic distance, with r = 0.249 +/- 0.006 for Lasker's distance, r = 0.338 +/- 0.006 for the Euclidean distance, and r = 0.418 +/- 0.006 for Nei's distance. Two dendrograms, one for the 7 regions and one for the 232 towns, were built from the matrices of Nei's distances. The dendrogram for regions indicates that a main surname differentiation exists between the East and West areas of Texas, with West Texas being predominantly Hispanic and East Texas being predominantly English-speaking. The dendrogram for the towns confirms in detail the differences identified by the matrix of distances between regions. Random inbreeding calculated from isonymy, F(ST), was highest in the west and in the south of the state. It was lowest in the area of Austin and Houston. Average Fisher's alpha for towns was 734, for regions it was 1,047, and for Texas as a whole it was 1,230. The geographic distribution of alpha in the state shows distinctly lower values in the traditionally Hispanic west and higher values in the east and on the Gulf of Mexico.     

Surnames in Siberia: a study of the population of Yakutia through isonymy

We studied the isonymic structure of the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia), in the Russian Federation, using the surname distributions of 491,259 citizens above 18 years registered as residents in 2002. These were distributed in 35 districts and 497 towns and settlements of the Republic. The number of different surnames was 44,625. Matrices of isonymic distances between the 35 districts were tested for correlation with the geographic distance between the population centers of gravity of the districts. We found that, for the whole of Yakutia, Nei's distance was correlated with geographic distance (r = 0.693 +/- 0.027). A dendrogram of the 35 districts was built from the distance matrix, using the UPGMA method. The clusters identified by the dendrogram correlate with the geographic position of the districts. The correlation of random inbreeding calculated from isonymy, F(ST), with latitude was positive and highly significant but weak (r = 0.23). So, inbreeding was highest in the Arctic districts, and lowest in the South. Average alpha for 497 towns was 107, for 35 districts it was 311, and for the Republic 433. The value of alpha was higher for Russian than for the local languages. The geographical distribution of alpha, high in the Center and South-East and lower in the North-West, is compatible with the settlement of groups of migrants moving from the South-East toward the center and the North of Yakutia. It is proposed that low-density demic diffusion of human populations results in high inbreeding and may have been a general phenomenon in the early phases of human radiations.     

菲菊头蝠不同地理种群回声定位声波差异及其影响因子

回声定位声波地理差异及其形成原因是蝙蝠生态学研究领域一个基本而关键的问题,对于探索物种生存机制、物种形成及其保护具有重要科学意义。本研究从较大地理尺度上(9个地理种群)研究了菲菊头蝠(Rhinolophus pusillus)回声定位声波结构的地理差异,并进一步探讨了影响回声定位声波地理种群差异的因素。结果表明,菲菊头蝠雌性的体型较雄性略大,其主频较高。不同地理种群之间回声定位声波差异明显,包括脉冲持续时间、脉冲间隔、主频以及带宽在不同的地理种群之间均表现出一定程度的差异。进一步分析发现,不同地理种群之间的雌性菲菊头蝠前臂长和体重均与主频呈较弱的负相关,降雨量与雌性的主频呈较强的正相关;而不同地理种群之间的雄性前臂长、体重和降雨量与回声定位声波参数均无相关性;此外,地理距离、温度、湿度均与雌雄回声定位声波参数无相关性。本研究结果表明,菲菊头蝠不同地理种群间的回声定位声波出现明显差异,其中,体型和降雨量为主要影响因子,说明蝙蝠回声定位叫声的进化主要受到了当地生境的影响,表现出动物对不同生境的适应性进化。     

Spatial variation of anthropometric traits in Ireland.

To further elucidate the relationship between geography and genetics in Ireland, we considered variation in anthropometric traits of adult males by town using spatial autocorrelation methods. By describing and distinguishing significant patterns of anthropometric variation, we determined whether the anthropometric traits display a simple pattern of spatial variation, as predicted by the isolation by distance model, or other patterns of spatial variation. Several hypotheses were examined, including (1) whether there was spatial patterning of 20 anthropometric phenotypic distributions and 7 principal components of Irish males and (2) if there was, whether these phenotypic distributions could be explained by a simple isolation by distance model. The results of this study can be summarized by several key findings: (1) There is significant spatial patterning among towns, as detected in correlograms of 14 anthropometric traits and 2 principal component factor scores (values of Moran's I ranging from 0.7510 to -0.3616, p < or = 0.0071); (2) 4 spatial patterns were detected, including clinical patterns, long-distance differentiation, distance distinction, and regional patchiness. These results suggest several likely causes of the observed spatial patterns. First, in Ireland patterns of anthropometric variation could not be explained by a single spatial pattern (i.e., isolation by distance). Second, through an examination of the various combinations of statistical homogeneity or heterogeneity, spatial patterning or nonpatterning, and similarity or dissimilarity of spatial patterns, we conclude that several migrational events structured the genetic landscape of Ireland.     

Geographic variation of flower traits in Narcissus papyraceus (Amaryllidaceae): do pollinators matter?

Aim The geographic clinal variation of traits in organisms can indicate the possible causes of phenotypic evolution. We studied the correlates of flower trait variation in populations of a style‐dimorphic plant, Narcissus papyraceus Ker‐Gawl., within a region of high biogeographical significance, the Strait of Gibraltar. This species shows a geographic gradient in the style‐morph ratio, suggested to be driven by pollinator shifts. We tested whether parallel geographic variation of perianth traits also exists, concomitant with vegetative trait variation or genetic similarity of plant populations. Location The Strait of Gibraltar region (SG hereafter, including both south‐western Iberian Peninsula and north‐western Morocco). Methods We used univariate and multivariate analyses of flower and vegetative traits in 23 populations. We applied Mantel tests and partial Mantel correlations on vegetative and flower traits and geographic locations of populations to test for spatial effects. We used Moran’s autocorrelation analyses to explore the spatial structure within the range, and performed the analyses with and without the Moroccan samples to test for the effects of the SG on spatial patterns. Amplified fragment length polymorphism data were used to estimate the genetic distance between populations and to ascertain its relationship with morphometric distance. Results There was high variation between and within populations in both flower and vegetative traits. Mantel correlations between geographic and morphometric distances were not significant, but the exclusion of Moroccan populations revealed some distance effect. Partial Mantel correlation did not detect a significant correlation between flower and vegetative morphometric distances after controlling for geographic distance. There were opposite trends in spatial autocorrelograms of flower and vegetative traits. The genetic distance between pairs of populations was directly correlated with geographic distance; however, flower morphometric and genetic distances were not significantly correlated. Main conclusions The SG had some influence on phenotypes, although the causes remain to be determined. The opposite trend of variation in flower and vegetative traits, and the lack of correlation between genetic distance and dissimilarity of flower phenotypes favour the hypothesis of pollinator‐mediated selection on flower morphology, although this may affect only particular traits and populations rather than overall phenotypes. Although stochastic population processes may have a small effect, other factors may account for the high flower variation within and between populations.     

Surnames in Chile: a study of the population of Chile through isonymy

In Chile, the Hispanic dual surname system is used. To describe the isonymic structure of this country, the distribution of 16,277,255 surnames of 8,178,209 persons was studied in the 15 regions, the 54 provinces, and the 346 communes of the nation. The number of different surnames found was 72,667. Effective surname number (Fisher's α) for the entire country was 309.0, the average for regions was 240.8 ± 17.6, for provinces 209.2 ± 8.9, and for communes 178.7 ± 4.7. These values display a variation of inbreeding between administrative levels in the Chilean population, which can be attributed to the 'Prefecture effect' of Nei and Imaizumi. Matrices of isonymic distances between units within administrative levels were tested for correlation with geographic distance. The correlations were highest for provinces (r = 0.630 ± 0.019 for Euclidean distance) and lowest for communes (r = 0.366 ± 0.009 for Lasker's). The geographical distribution of the first three-dimensions of the Euclidean distance matrix suggests that population diffusion may have taken place from the north of the country toward the center and south. The prevalence of European plus European-Amerindian (95.4%) over Amerindian ethnicity (4.6%, CIA World Factbook) is compatible with diffusion of Caucasian groups over a low-density area populated by indigenous groups. The significant excess of maternal over paternal indigenous surnames indicates some asymmetric mating between nonAmerindian and Amerindian Chileans. The available studies of Y-markers and mt-markers are in agreement with this asymmetry. In the present work, we investigate the Chilean population with the aim of detecting its structure through the study of isonymy (Crow and Mange,1965) in the three administrative levels of the nation, namely 15 regions, 54 provinces, and 346 communes.     

Patterns of genetic structure among populations of an oligophagous pollinating yucca moth (Tegeticula yuccasella)

Plant-insect associations have served as models for investigations of coevolution and the influence of biotic interactions on diversification. The pollination association between yuccas and yucca moths is a classic example of an obligate mutualism often suggested to have been affected by coevolution. Recent work has shown high host specificity in pollinating yucca moths, and here we use Tegeticula yuccasella, the species with the widest diet breadth, to ask how host specificity and isolation by distance contribute to specialization. Isolation by distance at a regional scale was observed in nucleotide variation within the mitochondrial gene cytochrome oxidase I (COI) (r =.294; P =.003). Host-related genetic structure (F(ct) = 0.08) was found to be slightly lower than the level of structure observed between eastern and western moth populations (F(ct) = 0.096). However, 56% of the COI haplotypes sampled from moths on Yucca filamentosa mapped to a host-specific clade in the haplotype network. Taken together, these results suggest that differentiation among T. yuccasella populations on alternative hosts is slight, but gene flow is influenced by both host association and geographic distance.     

采用RAPD标记探讨瓣蕊唐松草(毛茛科唐松草属)的遗传多样性及其地理分布格局(英文)

Random amplified polymerphic DNA(RAPD)method was applied to assessg enetic variation and population structure of Thahctrum petalotdeum L(Ranunoulaceae),Two hundred and forty-six individuals from 11 populations of the species were investigated by RAPD profiles Twenty selected RAPD primers generated 125 bands．in which 120 were polymorphic Ther esults revealed a high level of genetic variation(ercentage of polymorphIc bands(PPB was 96％．Nei’s gene diversity(りwas 03502 and shannon’s information index(I) was 0．5199 at the species level) The differentiation among the populations was high(Gst=0．3511)in this species．Result of analyzing of molecularvariance(AMOVA)showedthat38．88％of genetic variance was found among the populations Positive correlation withr r=01945(P=00002)was found between genetic distance and geographic distance amongpo pulations Two populations distributed in the drainage basin of YanELz River affined genedcally and formed one clada and the rest nine populations formed the other clade in both unweighted pair-group method using arithmetic average(UPGMA)trees made by two different method different methods. It was yen/clear that these two populations were very special, andmust be closely related in history, despite the fact that they now share quite weak link to the restpopulations through gene communication.     

Host specificity and geographic range in haematophagous ectoparasites

A negative interspecific correlation between the degree of habitat specialization and the size of a species' geographic range has been documented for several free living groups of organisms, providing support for the niche breadth hypothesis. In contrast, practically nothing is known about the geographic range sizes of parasitic organisms and their determinants. In the context of the niche breadth hypothesis, parasites represent ideal study systems, because of the well documented variation in host specificity among parasite species. Here, we investigated the relationship between host specificity (a measure of niche breadth) and geographic range size among flea species parasitic on small mammals, using data from seven distinct geographical regions. Two measures of host specificity were used: the number of host species used by a flea species, and a measure of the average taxonomic distance between the host species used by a flea; the latter index provides an evolutionary perspective on host specificity. After correcting for phylogenetic influences, and using either of our two measures of host specificity, the degree of host specificity of fleas was negatively correlated with the size of their geographic range in all seven regions studied here, with only one minor exception. Overall, these results provide strong support for the niche breadth hypothesis, although other explanations cannot be ruled out.     

Population Genetic Structure of the Endangered Kaiser’s Mountain Newt,Neurergus kaiseri (Amphibia: Salamandridae)

Species often exhibit different levels of genetic structuring correlated to their environment. However, understanding how environmental heterogeneity influences genetic variation is difficult because the effects of gene flow, drift and selection are confounded. We investigated the genetic variation and its ecological correlates in an endemic and critically endangered stream breeding mountain newt, Neurergus kaiseri, within its entire range in southwestern Iran. We identified two geographic regions based on phylogenetic relationships using Bayesian inference and maximum likelihood of 779 bp mtDNA (D-loop) in 111 individuals from ten of twelve known breeding populations. This analysis revealed a clear divergence between northern populations, located in more humid habitats at higher elevation, and southern populations, from drier habitats at lower elevations regions. From seven haplotypes found in these populations none was shared between the two regions. Analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) of N. kaiseri indicates that 94.03% of sequence variation is distributed among newt populations and 5.97% within them. Moreover, a high degree of genetic subdivision, mainly attributable to the existence of significant variance among the two regions is shown (θ_CT = 0.94, P = 0.002). The positive and significant correlation between geographic and genetic distances (r = 0.61, P = 0.002) following controlling for environmental distance suggests an important influence of geographic divergence of the sites in shaping the genetic variation and may provide tools for a possible conservation based prioritization policy for the endangered species.     

Microsatellite variability and heterozygote deficiency in the arctic-alpine Alaskan wheatgrass (Elymus alaskanus) complex.

Genetic variation in the allotetraploid grass Elymus alaskanus complex was assessed using microsatellites in seven populations from Canada, Greenland, and the U.S.A. Microsatellite variation was compared with allozyme and RAPD variation. Our results indicated that E. alaskanus was highly homozygous but also highly variable. The polymorphic loci ranged from 50 to 100% with a mean of 78.6%, and the mean number of allele per locus was 3.14. Average expected heterozygosity value (HE, gene diversity) varied across populations and ranged from 0.244 to 0.651 with mean of 0.414. The mean value of HE across Canadian populations (0.517) was significantly higher than that across populations in Greenland (0.367). The correlation between allozyme and microsatellite gene diversity value (HE) showed a high positive correlation (r = 0.68), but between RAPD and microsatellite showed a low positive correlation (r = 0.08). Populations were highly differentiated, with 38% of variation among populations. Interpopulation genetic distance showed no association with geographic distance between the population sites of origin. A Hardy-Weinberg exact test for all loci and all populations reveals a significant heterozygote deficiency. Possible explanations for heterozygote deficiency are discussed.     

Variability of multilocus DNA markers in populations of the Siberian (Capreolus pygargus Pall.) and European (C. capreolus L.) roe deer

Two types of nuclear DNA markers, M13 minisatellites and RAPD, were used to examine intraspecific and interspecific variation in closely related roe deer species, Capreolus capreolus L. and C. pygargus Pall. The roe deer populations studied were highly polymorphic for minisatellite DNA markers (S = 0.12-0.36). Heterozygosities of the RAPD loci were 0.185 (Russian Far East), 0.145, 0.131, 0.088 (Cis-Ural), and 0.06 (France). They correlated with karyotypic variation of B chromosomes (r = 0.975, P < 0.02; Spearman's correlation coefficient r = 1, P = 0.1 x 10(-5)), which indicated a contribution of microchromosomes to genetic variation of the species. The genetic distance D between the closely related species C. capreolus and C. pygargus was 50 times greater than the distance between populations within a species. The estimates of heterozygosity and genetic distance between local populations of Cis-Ural and the Far East suggest their specific spatial organization within this geographical range and reveal features of their historical development.