Patterns and consequences of behavioural responses to predators and parasites in Rana tadpoles

We examined the interactive effects of predators and trematodes on Rana sybatica and Rana clamitans larvae. We hypothesized that exposure to predators would increase tadpole susceptibility to trematode infection, by reducing tadpole activity and thereby increasing time spent on the bottom. We further hypothesized that the tadpoles would experience reduced rates of growth and development in the presence of either predators or parasites, and that predator presence would stimulate both species to develop larger tails and smaller bodies. Rana clamilans and R. sybatica reduced their activity in the presence of both predators and trematode cercariae. In the longer running R. clamitans experiment, predator-exposed tadpoles developed significantly shallower tails and wider bodies, while trematode infection had no effect on growth, development, or shape. Most significantly, we found that extended exposure to caged fish predators made R. clamitans tadpoles more susceptible to trematode infection. A possible mechanism for this increased vulnerability is that reduced activity in the presence of predators increases tadpoles' proximity to cercariae. Our study suggests that various factors that decrease tadpole activity–predator presence, trematode cercariae and certain pesticides–may act synergistically to negatively impact tadpole populations.     

Predators and trematode parasites jointly affect larval anuran functional traits and corticosterone levels

Non‐consumptive predator effects may have dramatic consequences for host–parasite interactions by influencing the ability of prey items to avoid, resist, or tolerate infection. Both predators and parasites can affect host traits, such as growth rates and behavior, and these effects may in part be mediated through shared physiological pathways (e.g. the glucocorticoid stress hormone, corticosterone [CORT]). Here, we examined the effects of trematode parasites (Digena: Echinostomatidae) and predator (larval odonate) exposure on larvae of two amphibian species (Rana sylvatica and R. clamitans) in laboratory experiments. First, we measured behavior and CORT responses of tadpoles exposed to predator chemical cue in combination with parasite cue or under direct exposure to parasites. We then measured the combined effects of predator cue and parasite infection on survival and traits. Evidence for effects of parasite cue in our study was equivocal, but we found novel interactive effects of parasites and predators on larval frogs. Parasites and predators had antagonistic effects on CORT, behavior, and morphology, and negative synergistic effects on development. In addition, parasite infection and predator cues additively reduced activity levels of both species and growth in wood frogs. Negative effects of parasite infection on survival and traits were dose‐dependent for both species, although wood frogs generally experienced stronger effects of infection than green frogs. Our results emphasize the importance of considering effects of parasites as well as predators, since both can have strong effects on survival and the combination can have both additive and non‐additive effects on key traits. These effects likely have important implications for amphibian population dynamics, community structure, and conservation.     

Different ecological conditions support individual specialization in closely related,ecologically similar species

Individual generalist predators often have more specialized diets than their populations do. Individual specialization (IS) is influenced by ecological opportunity, intraspecific competition, and interspecific competition, although the effects of these parameters are inconsistent across studies. We investigated IS in five species of frogs and toads, Anaxyrus americanus, A. fowleri, Lithobates catesbeianus, L. clamitans, and L. sphenocephalus. We used the natural history and ecology of each species to predict which parameters would influence IS. Our predictions were supported for some species but not others. We predicted IS would be positively influenced by resource diversity in all species, but this prediction held for only three species, with the relationship significant in A. fowleri and L. catesbeianus and marginally significant in A. americanus. We also predicted that interspecific competition would have a negative relationship with IS in L. clamitans because L. catesbeianus is competitively superior to L. clamitans and likely to suppress its foraging options. This prediction was upheld. Finally, we predicted that IS in A. americanus, A. fowleri, and L. clamitans would be influenced by intraspecific competition. However, IS was not influenced by intraspecific competition in any species, a surprising result given that intraspecific competition has traditionally been assumed to be the ecological parameter with the strongest effects on IS. Many previous studies did not simultaneously consider all three ecological parameters, which may have increased the apparent importance of intraspecific competition for IS. Our results revealed that the ecological parameters affected IS differently even across closely related and ecologically similar species, and demonstrated that these differences are sometimes predictable based on natural history. This study also suggests that sympatric ecological speciation based on IS may be rare because the ecological parameters driving IS are inconsistent across species, and the strength of their effects on intraspecific diet variation varies in space.     

Antipredator Behavior of American Bullfrogs (Lithobates catesbeianus) in a Novel Environment

Invasive species capable of recognizing potential predators may have increased establishment rates in novel environments. Individuals may retain historical predator recognition and invoke innate responses in the presence of taxonomically or ecologically similar predators, generalize antipredator responses, or learn to avoid risky species in novel environments. Invasive amphibians in aquatic environments often use chemical cues to assess predation risk and learn to avoid novel predators via direct experience and/or associated chemical cues. Ontogeny may also influence recognition; experience with predators may need to occur at certain developmental stages for individuals to respond correctly. We tested predator recognition in invasive American bullfrog ( Lithobates catesbeianus) tadpoles that varied in experience with fish predators at the population and individual scale. We found that bullfrog tadpoles responded to a historical predator, largemouth bass ( Micropterus salmoides), only if the population was locally sympatric with largemouth bass. Individuals from a population that did not co‐occur with largemouth bass did not increase refuge use in response to either largemouth bass chemical cues alone or chemical cues with diet cues (largemouth bass fed bullfrog tadpoles). To test whether this behavioral response was generalized across fish predators, we exposed tadpoles to rainbow trout ( Oncorhynchus mykiss) and found that tadpoles could not recognize this novel predator regardless of co‐occurrence with other fish species. These results suggest that environment may be more important for predator recognition than evolutionary history for this invasive species, and individuals do not retain predator recognition or generalize across fish predators.     

Assessing the risk effects of native predators on the exotic American bullfrog (Lithobates catesbeianus) and their indirect consequences to ecosystem function

Understanding the factors and mechanisms that affect the impacts of invasive species in invaded environments has been widely debated among researchers. However, few studies about invasive species have explored the effects of predation risks by native predators on exotic prey. Herein, the traditional invasive predator-native prey framework was reversed. We tested if tadpoles, of the worldwide invasive American Bullfrog Lithobates catesbeianus, were affected by the predation risk imposed by native predators. We used two different species of belostomatid predators and tested whether and how predation-induced phenotypic plasticity on L. catesbeianus reverberated in morphological, physiological, and ecosystem-level processes. Individuals of L. catesbeianus modified their morphological (tail muscle width), behavioral (activity and foraging), and physiological (growth and growth efficiency) traits in the presence of predation risk. Based on the observed morphological changes, our results suggest that prey may recognize predator-specific cues. In addition, we observed that L. catesbeianus' responses to predation risk can affect ecosystem-level properties, by inducing trophic cascades and reducing animal-mediated nutrient recycling rates. In summary, our study supports that exotic prey species who are subjected to native predators may display anti-predator responses, with implications for their development, as well as possible ecosystem-level effects.     

Are behavioural traits in prey sensitive to the risk imposed by predatory fish?

1. Behavioural differences among prey species may result from evolutionary adaptations that facilitate coexistence with different predators and influence vulnerability to predators. It has been hypothesised that prey species modify their behaviour in relation to the risk posed by particular predators. 2. We examined the relationship between anti‐predator behaviour and predation risk in five species of larval odonates in combination with three predatory fish species (perch, gudgeon and rudd) that differ in foraging behaviour. The odonates, Platycnemis pennipes, Coenagrion puella, Lestes sponsa, Sympetrum striolatum and Libellula depressa, differ with regard to their life cycle and habitat, including water depth, occurrence in temporary ponds and co‐existence with fish. 3. The odonate species differed in their response to fish: (i) Two species showed a flexible response. Larval C. puella reduced activity in the presence of fish, regardless of species, whereas L. depressa altered their activity only in the presence of gudgeon. (ii) Independent of fish species, all odonates except L. depressa exhibited spatial avoidance of fish. This was interpreted as a more general anti‐predator response. (iii) In some cases the odonates showed no response to predators and their behaviour was thus independent of predation risk. 4. Our results confirm that all odonates responded to the presence of at least some predatory fish, and that some odonate species discriminated between fish species. However, we found no significant correlation between behavioural modifications and predation risk, indicating that anti‐predator responses and predation risk depend on the particular predator and the species being preyed on.     

The influence of predator regime on the behaviour and mortality of a freshwater amphipod, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Gammarus pulex</Emphasis>

In species with restricted dispersal, traits may become genetically fixed leading to local adaptations. Therefore, predator avoidance in a prey species may differ between populations experiencing different predator regimes, but also between sexes within a population due to different vulnerability to predators. In this study we used male and female Gammarus pulex from two different predator regimes: fishless ponds, where invertebrates are the dominant predators and ponds with predatory fish. In the laboratory we examined refuge use, mortality, leaf decomposition rate and pair-formation in G. pulex when exposed to predator cues from either invertebrate predators or fish. Individuals from fish ponds spent more time in refuge and had a higher mortality than those from fishless ponds independent of predator cues. There was no effect of pond predator regime or predator cues on leaf decomposition rates. Further, fewer individuals formed pairs in G. pulex from fish ponds than from fishless ponds. Male G. pulex had a higher mortality and a higher decomposition rate than females independent of predator cues. However, there was no difference in refuge use between sexes. Our study shows that there are general differences in behaviour traits, both between predator regimes and sexes in G. pulex.     

The combined influence of trematode parasites and predatory salamanders on wood frog (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Rana sylvatica</Emphasis>) tadpoles

Predators can have important impacts on host–parasite dynamics. For many directly transmitted parasites, predators can reduce transmission by removing the most heavily infected individuals from the population. Less is known about how predators might influence parasite dynamics in systems where the parasite relies on vectors or multiple host species to complete their life cycles. Digenetic trematodes are parasitic flatworms with complex life cycles typically involving three host species. They are common parasites in freshwater systems containing aquatic snails, which serve as obligate first intermediate hosts, and multiple trematode species use amphibians as second intermediate hosts. We experimentally examined the impact of predatory salamanders (Ambystoma jeffersonianum) and trematode parasites (Echinostoma trivolvis and Ribeiroia ondatrae) on short-term survival of wood frog tadpoles (Rana sylvatica) in 150-L outdoor pools. Two trematode species were used in experiments because field surveys indicated the presence of both species at our primary study site. Parasites and predators both significantly reduced tadpole survival in outdoor pools; after 6 days, tadpole survival was reduced from 100% in control pools to a mean of 46% in pools containing just parasites and a mean of 49% in pools containing just predators. In pools containing both infected snails and predators, tadpole survival was further reduced to a mean of 5%, a clear risk-enhancement or synergism. These dramatic results suggest that predators may alter transmission dynamics of trematodes in natural systems, and that a complete understanding of host–parasite interactions requires studying these interactions within the ecological framework of community interactions.     

Prey bacteria shape the community structure of their predators

Although predator–prey interactions among higher organisms have been studied extensively, only few examples are known for microbes other than protists and viruses. Among the bacteria, the most studied obligate predators are the Bdellovibrio and like organisms (BALOs) that prey on many other bacteria. In the macroscopical world, both predator and prey influence the population size of the other''s community, and may have a role in selection. However, selective pressures among prey and predatory bacteria have been rarely investigated. In this study, Bacteriovorax, a predator within the group of BALOs, in environmental waters were fed two prey bacteria, Vibrio vulnificus and Vibrio parahaemolyticus. The two prey species yielded distinct Bacteriovorax populations, evidence that selective pressures shaped the predator community and diversity. The results of laboratory experiments confirmed the differential predation of Bacteriovorax phylotypes on the two bacteria species. Not only did Bacteriovorax Cluster IX exhibit the versatility to be the exclusive efficient predator on Vibrio vulnificus, thereby, behaving as a specialist, but was also able to prey with similar efficiency on Vibrio parahaemolyticus, indicative of a generalist. Therefore, we proposed a designation of versatilist for this predator. This initiative should provide a basis for further efforts to characterize the predatory patterns of bacterial predators. The results of this study have revealed impacts of the prey on Bacteriovorax predation and in structuring the predator community, and advanced understanding of predation behavior in the microbial world.     

Do Parasitic Trematode Cercariae Demonstrate a Preference for Susceptible Host Species?

Many parasites are motile and exhibit behavioural preferences for certain host species. Because hosts can vary in their susceptibility to infections, parasites might benefit from preferentially detecting and infecting the most susceptible host, but this mechanistic hypothesis for host-choice has rarely been tested. We evaluated whether cercariae (larval trematode parasites) prefer the most susceptible host species by simultaneously presenting cercariae with four species of tadpole hosts. Cercariae consistently preferred hosts in the following order: Anaxyrus ( = Bufo) terrestris (southern toad), Hyla squirella (squirrel tree frog), Lithobates ( = Rana) sphenocephala (southern leopard frog), and Osteopilus septentrionalis (Cuban tree frog). These host species varied in susceptibility to cercariae in an order similar to their attractiveness with a correlation that approached significance. Host attractiveness to parasites also varied consistently and significantly among individuals within a host species. If heritable, this individual-level host variation would represent the raw material upon which selection could act, which could promote a Red Queen “arms race” between host cues and parasite detection of those cues. If, in general, motile parasites prefer to infect the most susceptible host species, this phenomenon could explain aggregated distributions of parasites among hosts and contribute to parasite transmission rates and the evolution of virulence. Parasite preferences for hosts belie the common assumption of disease models that parasites seek and infect hosts at random.     

Flexible antipredator behavior in a dragonfly species that coexists with different predator types

Two of the main predators of dragonfly larvae, insectivorous fish in communities with fish and large dragonfly species in communities without fish, differ markedly in their mode of predation. In general, dragonfly species coexist successfully with one predator or the other, but larvae of the dragonfly Pachydiplax longipennis can coexist successfully with both. I examined the behavioral response of these larvae to a simulated predator attack to determine whether their response (1) differs between the two communities, and (2) is sensitive to waterborne cues about the type of predator present. I compared larvae from two different communities: fish ponds where insectivorous fish were the top predators, and fish-free ponds where large dragonflies were the top predators. Larvae from fish-free ponds actively moved away from an attack significantly more than did larvae from fish ponds, provided each was attacked in its native pond water. Larvae collected from a fish-free pond but then attacked in fish water moved less than did controls (larvae attacked in fish-free water). Likewise, larvae collected from a fish pond but attacked in fish-free water moved more than did controls (larvae attacked in fish water). Larvae attacked first in water from their native pond and then in water from the contrasting pond changed their response in the expected direction. These results indicate that escape behavior in P. longipennis differs between communities with different predator types and is sensitive to waterborne cues in a manner consistent with the mode of predation employed by each predator.     

Behavioral responses to fish kairomones and autotomy in a damselfly

The threat-sensitivity hypothesis predicts that prey species assess and adjust their behavior in accordance with the magnitude of the threat posed by a predator. A largely overlooked characteristic of a prey that will affect its sensitivity to predators is its history of autotomy. We studied threat-sensitive behavior to fish kairomones in larvae of Ischnura elegans damselflies, which had undergone autotomy, from a fishpond and from a fishless pond. In agreement with their higher perceived risk, larvae from the fishpond showed fewer rigid abdomen bends, foraged less and walked more slowly than larvae from the fishless pond. In line with their higher vulnerability to predators, larvae without lamellae spent less time foraging than larvae with lamellae. There was a decrease in swimming activity in the presence of fish kairomones except for larvae with lamellae from the fishless pond. This may reflect differences in vulnerability of larvae without lamellae between pond types. Such context-dependent responses in activity to kairomones should be kept in mind when evaluating the ability of a prey to recognize kairomones.     

The influence of larval case design on vulnerability of Limnephilus frijole (Trichoptera) to predation

• 1 We examined the potential selective pressures exerted by different types of predators on morphological prey defences using the case-building larvae of the limnephilid caddisfly, Limnephilus frijole. The predators were a predaceous minnow, Gila pandora, and an aeschnid dragonfly naiad, Oplonaeschna armata.
• 2 The influence of larval case design on vulnerability to predators was evaluated in a series of laboratory experiments. Larval L. frijole were collected from a stream without fish or dragonflies. In the laboratory, larvae still occupying their field-built cases were exposed to the two predators, with which L. frijole co-occurs in other streams. Following 24 h exposure of caddisfly larvae to a specific predator, the pre-trial case length, case strength, case width, and case composition of victims and survivors were compared.
• 3 Principal components analysis (PCA) indicated substantial independent variation for all four case parameters in the study population. The cases of larvae surviving exposure to either dragonfly naiads or fish were significantly stronger and wider than cases of victims of predation. Cases of survivors were also longer and had a greater mineral fraction than those of victims, but differences were either marginally significant or not significant.
• 4 These results demonstrate that specific aspects of case design affect the vulnerability of caddisfly larvae. In addition, predaceous fish and predaceous invertebrates, using different predation techniques, may exert similar selective pressures on these defenses. Case aspects influencing vulnerability in these experiments are broadly consistent with natural variation in case design associated with predator-rich and predator-free habitats for related caddisfly species.

     

Competition and host size mediate larval anuran interactions with trematode parasites

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Preference for Cannibalism and Ontogenetic Constraints in Competitive Ability of Piscivorous Top Predators

Occurrence of cannibalism and inferior competitive ability of predators compared to their prey have been suggested to promote coexistence in size-structured intraguild predation (IGP) systems. The intrinsic size-structure of fish provides the necessary prerequisites to test whether the above mechanisms are general features of species interactions in fish communities where IGP is common. We first experimentally tested whether Arctic char (Salvelinus alpinus) were more efficient as a cannibal than as an interspecific predator on the prey fish ninespine stickleback (Pungitius pungitius) and whether ninespine stickleback were a more efficient competitor on the shared zooplankton prey than its predator, Arctic char. Secondly, we performed a literature survey to evaluate if piscivores in general are more efficient as cannibals than as interspecific predators and whether piscivores are inferior competitors on shared resources compared to their prey fish species. Both controlled pool experiments and outdoor pond experiments showed that char imposed a higher mortality on YOY char than on ninespine sticklebacks, suggesting that piscivorous char is a more efficient cannibal than interspecific predator. Estimates of size dependent attack rates on zooplankton further showed a consistently higher attack rate of ninespine sticklebacks compared to similar sized char on zooplankton, suggesting that ninespine stickleback is a more efficient competitor than char on zooplankton resources. The literature survey showed that piscivorous top consumers generally selected conspecifics over interspecific prey, and that prey species are competitively superior compared to juvenile piscivorous species in the zooplankton niche. We suggest that the observed selectivity for cannibal prey over interspecific prey and the competitive advantage of prey species over juvenile piscivores are common features in fish communities and that the observed selectivity for cannibalism over interspecific prey has the potential to mediate coexistence in size structured intraguild predation systems.     

Threat-Sensitive Responses to Predator Attacks in a Damselfly

The threat sensitivity hypothesis predicts that prey species assess and adjust their behavior flexibly in accordance with the magnitude of the threat imposed by a predator. We tested this hypothesis with regard to escape behavior and thanatosis (feigning of death to escape predation) in larvae of the damselfly Ischnura elegans. We manipulated the perceived predation threat of the larvae by changing three factors: lamellae autotomy (an escape strategy where animals sacrifice a body part when grasped by a predator; lamellae present or absent), kairomone type (odors released by predators; control, dragonfly kairomones or fish kairomones), and population of origin (fishpond or fishless pond). We demonstrated that thanatosis increased survival both when confronted with dragonfly and fish predators. We could show, for the first time, costs of past autotomy to be predator‐dependent: larvae without lamellae suffered higher predation mortality but only in the presence of a dragonfly predator and not in the presence of a fish predator. This is in accordance with the observed reduced escape speed of larvae after autotomy, which may affect escape probability toward dragonfly predators but not to the very fast fish predators. Unexpectedly, kairomone type did not affect the escape response of the larvae. In accordance with the threat sensitivity hypothesis, after an unsuccessful attack, larvae without lamellae had a higher frequency to enter thanatosis than larvae with lamellae and larvae from the fishpond showed longer thanatosis durations than larvae from the fishless pond. Consistent with the hypothesis, the reaction of the larvae to a simulated attack depended jointly on lamellae status and population. In fishless ponds, larvae with lamellae swam away more frequently than larvae without lamellae; in fishponds both groups almost never swam away and relied mostly upon immobility. Given the obvious benefits of adaptively varying escape responses we hypothesize this threat sensitivity to be widespread. Moreover, we argue that former inconsistencies between studies with regard to escape behavior may have been partly because of such adaptive variation.     

Inspection and evaluation of host plant by the butterfly Mechanitis lysimnia (Nymph., Ithomiinae) before laying eggs: a mechanism to reduce intraspecific competition

Parasites of all kinds affect the behaviour of their hosts, often making them more susceptible to predators. The associated loss in expected future reproductive success of infected hosts will vary among individuals, with younger ones having more lose than older ones. For this reason, young hosts would benefit more by opposing the effects of parasites than old ones. In a laboratory study, the effects of the trematode Telogaster opisthorchis on the anti-predator responses of the upland bully (Gobiomorphus breviceps) and of the common river galaxias (Galaxias vulgaris) were examined in relation to fish age. In a bully population where parasites were very abundant, the magnitude of the fish's anti-predator responses decreased as the number of parasites per fish increased, and this effect was significantly more pronounced in age 2 + and, to a lesser extent, age 3 + fish than in age 1 + fish. In another bully population where parasites were 10 times less abundant, similar effects were noticeable but not significant, whereas no effects of parasites on the responses of galaxiids to predators were apparent. Differences in the abundance of parasites and in their sites of infection in fish may explain the variability among host populations or species. However, in the bully population with high parasite abundance, parasitism has age-dependent effects on responses to predators, providing some support for the prediction that young fish with high expected future reproductive success invest more energy into opposing the effects of parasites than do older fish.     

Evidence for carry-over effects of predator exposure on pathogen transmission potential

Accumulating evidence indicates that species interactions such as competition and predation can indirectly alter interactions with other community members, including parasites. For example, presence of predators can induce behavioural defences in the prey, resulting in a change in susceptibility to parasites. Such predator-induced phenotypic changes may be especially pervasive in prey with discrete larval and adult stages, for which exposure to predators during larval development can have strong carry-over effects on adult phenotypes. To the best of our knowledge, no study to date has examined possible carry-over effects of predator exposure on pathogen transmission. We addressed this question using a natural food web consisting of the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum, the mosquito vector Anopheles coluzzii and a backswimmer, an aquatic predator of mosquito larvae. Although predator exposure did not significantly alter mosquito susceptibility to P. falciparum, it incurred strong fitness costs on other key mosquito life-history traits, including larval development, adult size, fecundity and longevity. Using an epidemiological model, we show that larval predator exposure should overall significantly decrease malaria transmission. These results highlight the importance of taking into account the effect of environmental stressors on disease ecology and epidemiology.     

Reciprocity in predator–prey interactions: exposure to defended prey and predation risk affects intermediate predator life history and morphology

A vast body of literature exists documenting the morphological, behavioural and life history changes that predators induce in prey. However, little attention has been paid to how these induced changes feed back and affect the predators’ life history and morphology. Larvae of the phantom midge Chaoborus flavicans are intermediate predators in a food web with Daphnia pulex as the basal resource and planktivorous fish as the top predator. C. flavicans prey on D. pulex and are themselves prey for fish; as D. pulex induce morphological defences in the presence of C. flavicans this is an ideal system in which to evaluate the effects of defended prey and top predators on an intermediate consumer. We assessed the impact on C. flavicans life history and morphology of foraging on defended prey while also being exposed to the non-lethal presence of a top fish predator. We tested the basic hypothesis that the effects of defended prey will depend on the presence or absence of top predator predation risk. Feeding rate was significantly reduced and time to pupation was significantly increased by defended morph prey. Gut size, development time, fecundity, egg size and reproductive effort respond to fish chemical cues directly or significantly alter the relationship between a trait and body size. We found no significant interactions between prey morph and the non-lethal presence of a top predator, suggesting that the effects of these two biological factors were additive or singularly independent. Overall it appears that C. flavicans is able to substantially modify several aspects of its biology, and while some changes appear mere consequences of resource limitation others appear facultative in nature.     

Variation in anti-parasite behaviour and infection among larval amphibian species

Along with immune defences, many animals exhibit effective anti-parasite behaviours such as parasite avoidance and removal that influence their susceptibility to infection. Host ecology and life history influence investment into comparatively fixed defences such as innate immunity but may affect the strength of anti-parasite behaviours as well. We investigated activity levels in five different species of larval amphibian with varying life histories and ecology in control, novel food stimulus, and trematode parasite (Echinoparyphium sp.) threat conditions. There was a significant interaction of species and treatment given that American toad (Bufo americanus), wood frog (Lithobates sylvaticus), and bullfrog (Lithobates catesbeianus) tadpoles generally increased their activity when parasite infectious stages were present while grey tree frogs (Hyla versicolor) and northern leopard frogs (Lithobates pipiens) did not, even though activity was negatively related to infection. In addition, there was considerable variation among species in their susceptibility to parasitism, with infection prevalence ranging from 17 % in bullfrog tadpoles to 70 % in wood frogs. However, amphibian life history (larval and adult traits) was not related to parasitism or level of anti-parasite behaviour at the species level. Consequently, we suggest that future investigations include more species with a range of life history traits and also consider host ecology, particularly if conspicuous anti-parasite behaviours are more likely in amphibian species that experience a relatively low risk of predation.