Psychiatric institutions, their architecture, and the politics of regional autonomy in the Austro-Hungarian monarchy

This paper examines the planning process and architecture of two public psychiatric institutions built around 1900 in Trieste and Lower Austria. From 1864, the building of new asylums was the responsibility of Crown land governments, which by the end of the nineteenth century had emerged as sites of power and self-presentation by minority groups and new political parties. At the same time, the area of asylum planning was establishing itself as a branch of asylum psychiatry and promoting the idea of the asylum as model settlement, contributing to social reform. I analyse the interaction of psychiatrists, architects and government officials involved in planning the two institutions in the context of Crown land governments' self-positioning within the empire and internationally (especially in relation to Italy and Germany). The Trieste asylum planners were working for a government controlled by Italian nationalists, but their desire for a 'modern' asylum turned them towards German models. The Christian Social government in Lower Austria sought to supplant Germany as the leader in this branch of science. The spatial arrangement and visual articulation of the two asylums is interpreted in the context of the interaction of psychiatry and the politics of regional autonomy.     

Stature variation in the British American Colonies: French and Indian War records, 1755-1763

Personnel records kept by military units of American colonials during the French and Indian War (1755-1763) are analyzed for relationships between environmental factors and stature. A robust American economy and direct access to high-quality food were apparently critical to tallness of this white American male sample. American-born men were taller at all ages than those who had migrated from Europe. January temperatures, rural versus urban birth, and ethnicity also showed stature relationships within the American-born group; thermal effects were by far the strongest of the non-nutritional factors.     

Chronic administration of three neuroleptics: Effects of behavioral supersensitivity mediated by two different brain regions in the rat

This investigation assessed the relative abilities of three neuroleptics to supersensitize behaviors mediated by the nigrostriatal and mesolimbic dopamine (DA) systems. Rats were treated with either haloperidol, thioridazine, fluotracen or vehicle for 21 days. Stereotypy, in response to DA injection to the striatum, or locomotor activity, in response to DA injection to the nucleus accumbens, were measured after the termination of drug treatment. Pre-treatment with haloperidol enhanced both behavioral responses to central DA injection, while pre-treatment with thioridazine did not enhance either behavior. Pre-treatment with fluotracen enhanced the locomotor response to DA injection to the nucleus accumbens, but did not alter stereotypy after DA injection to the striatum. Neuroleptics differ in their ability to supersensitize the same DA-related behavior, and act selectively to supersensitize behaviors mediated by different DA systems.     

Expression of NMDAR1, GluR1, GluR7, and KA1 Glutamate Receptor mRNAs Is Decreased in Frontal Cortex of "Neuroleptic-Free" Schizophrenics: Evidence on Reversible Up-Regulation by Typical Neuroleptics

Abstract: Schizophrenics exhibit abnormalities in many memory-associated functions mediated by the frontal cortex. Glutamate receptors play key roles in learning and memory. Hence, abnormalities in glutamate receptors within the frontal cortex may be associated with schizophrenia. In addition, emerging evidence indicates that glutamate receptors may be involved in the actions of antipsychotic drugs. To test these hypotheses, we measured mRNAs encoding the NMDAR1, GluR1, GluR7, and KA1 subunits of glutamate receptor in the left superior frontal gyrus from 21 elderly schizophrenics with varying histories of antipsychotic drug treatment and nine normal drug-free elderly controls. There were significant negative correlations between NMDAR1, GluR1, GluR7, and KA1 mRNA levels and time without neuroleptic medication before death in schizophrenics, indicating that levels of the glutamate receptor mRNAs decline rapidly after drug withdrawal. Further analysis revealed that in "neuroleptic-free" (>6 months) schizophrenics, levels of NMDAR1, GluR1, GluR7, and KA1 mRNAs were significantly lower than in controls. By contrast, in schizophrenics who were receiving neuroleptics until death, levels of NMDAR1, GluR1, GluR7, and KA1 mRNAs did not differ significantly from controls. These findings indicate that decreased levels of NMDAR1, GluR1, GluR7, and KA1 mRNAs may be present in the frontal cortex of some schizophrenics and that typical neuroleptics may reversibly increase levels of these mRNAs.     

Persons, Places, and times: the meanings of repetition in an STD clinic

In this article we work the tensions between the way clinical medicine and public health necessarily construct the problem of "repetition" in the context of a sexually transmitted disease (STD) clinic and the ways patients narrate their illness experiences. This tension-between clinical and epidemiological exigencies and the messiness of lived experience-is a recurring theme of work conducted at the intersections of epidemiology, anthropology, and clinical medicine. Clinically, repeated infections are a threat to the individual body and to "normal" biological processes like reproduction. From a public health perspective, "repeaters" are imagined to be part of a "core group" that keeps infections in circulation, endangering the social body. Yet patients' accounts are anchored in particular social histories, and their experiences rely on different time scales than those implicated in either of these types of readings. Extended analyses are provided of two such accounts: one in which repetition can be "read" as part of a performance of recovery, and one in which repetition is bound up in the effort to avoid becoming the involuntary subject of institutionally administered intervention. We argue the need to open up the category of repeaters to include the social and draw on work by Cheryl Mattingly to suggest that one way to do this in the context of the STD clinic might be to adopt forms of therapeutic practice that make use of interpretive, in addition to technical, skills.     

Creating Grasslands: Social Institutions and Environmental Change in Mkambati Area, South Africa

Through a case study of the grassland system of the Mkambati area in the Eastern Cape, South Africa, the paper explores the interaction of social institutions and ecological processes in the creation of a diverse grassland environment. A number of different transitions between grassland states are examined in detail, highlighting a range of social and institutional factors influencing grassland change. The spatial patterning of different grassland types and the frequency of transitions between them are shown to be dependent on the institutional relationships between different social actors. Understanding such complex and multifaceted processes of environmental change requires analytical tools which combine social and ecological perspectives;an extended form of qualitative state-transition modeling, which incorporates institutional dimensions, is therefore explored.     

The impact of weather on influenza and pneumonia mortality in New York City, 1975-2002: a retrospective study

The substantial winter influenza peak in temperate climates has lead to the hypothesis that cold and/or dry air is a causal factor in influenza variability. We examined the relationship between cold and/or dry air and daily influenza and pneumonia mortality in the cold season in the New York metropolitan area from 1975–2002. We conducted a retrospective study relating daily pneumonia and influenza mortality for New York City and surroundings from 1975–2002 to daily air temperature, dew point temperature (a measure of atmospheric humidity), and daily air mass type. We identified high mortality days and periods and employed temporal smoothers and lags to account for the latency period and the time between infection and death. Unpaired t-tests were used to compare high mortality events to non-events and nonparametric bootstrapped regression analysis was used to examine the characteristics of longer mortality episodes. We found a statistically significant (p = 0.003) association between periods of low dew point temperature and above normal pneumonia and influenza mortality 17 days later. The duration (r = −0.61) and severity (r = −0.56) of high mortality episodes was inversely correlated with morning dew point temperature prior to and during the episodes. Weeks in which moist polar air masses were common (air masses characterized by low dew point temperatures) were likewise followed by above normal mortality 17 days later (p = 0.019). This research supports the contention that cold, dry air may be related to influenza mortality and suggests that warning systems could provide enough lead time to be effective in mitigating the effects.     

Causes of neonatal mortality in Spain (1975-98): influence of sex, rural-urban residence and age at death

Neonatal mortality during the first week of life, corresponding to the years 1975-1998, was studied in Spain. The first week of life is the time in which the highest number of deaths occur. The temporal decrease of the neonatal mortality rate (NMR) was modelled according to log10(NMR+1)= 2.784 - 0.023 per year. This decline cannot be explained by an increase in the mean birth weight (MBW=23440.835 - 10.107 g per year). From the most frequent of the causes of death to the least were: congenital anomalies, preterm born or low birth weight, respiratory problems, pregnancy difficulties, hypoxaemia/asphyxia, delivery difficulties and infectious diseases. This sequence changed when the specific age at death was considered. The NMR descended evenly for both sexes for the causes indicated above, except for preterm born or low birth weight, in which the male mortality decrease was greater since its rate was more elevated at the beginning of the period studied. For all the causes listed, NMR was more elevated both in urban areas and for males. Early neonatal mortality (first 24 hours) was higher for pregnancy difficulties, preterm born or low birth weight, congenital anomalies and hypoxaemia/asphyxia.     

Caught in the Psychiatric Net: Meanings and Experiences of ADHD,Pediatric Bipolar Disorder and Mental Health Treatment Among a Diverse Group of Families in the United States

Based on a 13-month ethnographic meaning-centered study of the lived experience of behavioral and emotional disorders among children and families living in the United States, this article highlights the range of orientations to mental health problems and treatment among families from diverse backgrounds. Detailed case portraits of three families are presented to illustrate the various meanings that psychiatric diagnoses and mental health treatments take on within families, with medicalized perspectives holding less salience among African-American families relative to Euro-Americans in the study. The diverse orientations to problems among families in the study suggest that, despite the dominance of biochemical and neurological explanations for behavioral and emotional distress in contemporary U.S. culture, and especially U.S. psychiatry, nonpathological interpretations have not been wholly eclipsed by broad trends toward biologization and medicalization. Families’ experiences are positioned to reveal the allure, as well as the limitations, of biopsychiatric approaches to behavioral and emotional problems.

The institutionalization of biology in Mexico in the early 20th century: the conflict between Alfonso Luis Herrera (1865-1942) and Isaac Ochoterena (1885-1950)

The aim of this work is to evaluate the roleplayed by Alfonso Luis Herrera and IsaacOchoterena in the institutionalization ofacademic biology in Mexico in the early 20thcentury. As biology became institutionalized inMexico, Herrera's basic approach to biology wasdisplaced by Isaac Ochoterena's professionalgoals due to the prevailing politicalconditions at the end of 1929. Theconflict arose from two different conceptionsof biology, because Herrera and Ochoterena haddifferent discourses that were incommensurable,not only linguistically speaking, but alsosocioprofessionally. They had different linksto influential groups related to education,having distinct political and socioprofessionalinterests. The conflict between Herrreraand Ochoterena determined the way in whichprofessional biology education has developed inMexico, as well as the advancement in specificresearch subjects and the neglect of others.     

Natality and the changing pattern of seasonality of births in the province of Teramo (Abruzzo,Italy: 1500-1871)

Reconstruction of human ecosystems and their stability over time provides knowledge of the processes of adaptability developed by isolated communities. Seasonality of vital events is a good indicator of the effects of different 'traditional' lifestyles, which in turn depend on the ecological context in which a population developed specific subsistence models. Seasonality of births reflects the cultural attitude towards the best time to conceive, in relation to work activities and loads; the latter may also affect physiological functions related to fertility. The present research concerns gross birth rates and seasonality of births and conceptions during four centuries in south-central Italy. Birth rates were between 33.0 and 36.5 per 1000. The pattern of seasonality of births and, by extension, of conceptions defines a southern-type agricultural area for the earlier periods. However, it also shows a progressive shift towards an increasing concentration of conceptions in spring-summer--namely from April to August--with a large increase in summer in the 19th century with respect to the previous periods. The new 19th century pattern is reported by Crisafulli, Dalla Zuanna & Solero (2000) as being representative of the central Adriatic region, a geographical classification to which Abruzzo can also be attributed.     

Fish richness and species-habitat relationships in two coastal streams of French Guiana, South America

We examined the factors controlling fish species richness and taxa-habitat relationships in the Malmanoury and Karouabo coastal streams in French Guiana between the short and long rainy seasons. The aims were to evaluate the environmental factors that describe species richness on different scales and to define the ecological requirements of fish taxa in the two streams at that period of the year. We sampled ten regularly spaced freshwater sites in each stream with rotenone. We caught a total of 7725 individuals representing 52 taxa from 21 families and 6 orders. More taxa were caught in the Malmanoury (n=46) than in the Karouabo stream (n=37). These values augmented by the number of fish taxa caught only by gill nets in a parallel survey fitted very well to a log-log model of fish richness versus catchment area in Guianese rivers. Most of the fish taxa encountered in the Malmanoury and Karouabo streams were of freshwater origin and nearly all the fish species caught in these two small coastal streams were also found in the nearby Sinnamary River with the exceptions of the cichlid Heros severus and the characid Crenuchus spirulus. Moreover, no significant relationship was found between a size-independent estimate of fish richness and distance from the Ocean. Thus, despite their coastal position, the Malmanoury and Karouabo streams contained fish assemblages with strong continental affinities. At a local scale, independently of site size, those with relatively more habitat types harbored a relatively greater number of fish taxa. Canopy cover, water conductivity and bank length were the most important environmental variables for fish assemblage composition at that period of the year. Oxygen and vegetation participated also in defining fish habitat requirements but to a lesser extent. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Creating a surgery clerkship in a changing environment: reality, simulation, and the rules of engagement

This review describes the current challenges associated with creating a successful surgical clerkship and the ways in which teacher-focused and curriculum-focused initiatives can address these challenges. The challenges are both systemic (reflected by changes in our health care system and training programs) and institutional (reflected by factors that affect curriculum design and faculty advancement). Particular attention is paid to residents as teachers, faculty as mentors, the educational impact of the operating room, and the role of simulation. Strategies for engaging students, residents, and faculty are explored. The premise and impact of a comprehensive simulation course on the clinical education of medical students is detailed. Emphasis is placed on the educational validity of accountability and engagement of both the teachers and the learners.     

2-(Bipiperidin-1-yl)-5-(nitroaryl)-1,3,4-thiadiazoles: Synthesis,evaluation of in vitro leishmanicidal activity,and mechanism of action

The development of novel leishmanicidal agents that are capable of being replaced by the available therapeutic options has become a priority. In the present study, the synthesis and leishmanicidal activity of a series of 5-(nitroheteroaryl-2-yl)-1,3,4-thiadiazole derivatives are described. All compounds appeared to be potent anti-leishmanial agents against both promastigote and amastigote forms of Leishmania major (L. major). Amongst the synthesized compounds, 2-([1,4′-bipiperidin]-1′-yl)-5-(5-nitrofuran-2-yl)-1,3,4-thiadiazole (IIa) and 1-(5-(1-methyl-5-nitro-1H-imidazole-2-yl)-1,3,4-thiadiazol-2-yl)-4-(piperidine-1-yl) piperidine (IIc) are the most effective. Infection index was statistically declined in the presence of all compounds. The analysis of redox-related factors revealed that exposure of L. major cells to IIa and IIc led to an increase in reactive oxygen species (ROS). Furthermore, two compounds were able to increase ROS and NO levels in infected macrophages in a dose-independent manner. In addition, we showed that these compounds induced cell death in promastigotes. Altogether, our results indicated the anti-leishmanial potential of IIa and IIc is mediated by apoptosis through an imbalance in the redox system resulting in the elevation of ROS. This new class of compound seems to hold great promise for the development of new and useful anti-leishmanial agents.     

Street smarts and urban myths: women, sex work, and the role of storytelling in risk reduction and rationalization

Storytelling has a strong tradition in inner-city American communities. In this article, we examine patterns of storytelling among a sample of drug-using women from New York City who engage in street-based sex work. We consider two particular formats of storytelling for analysis: "street smarts" and "urban myths." Street smarts are stories of survival, and urban myths are compilations of street legends spread by word of mouth. The narratives are filled with tales of extreme risk across situations. The women used the stories to delineate the boundaries of risk as well as to rationalize risks they deemed to be inevitable but temporary in their lives. Few of the women capitalized on the greater instructive quality of the stories toward increased risk reduction, which may relate to the women's distance from an identity of "sex worker." If properly harnessed, the strength of storytelling suggests new avenues for risk-reduction interventions.     

Cytokinins: Synthesis of 2-, 8-, and 2,8-substituted 6-(3-methyl-2-butenylamino)purines and their relative activities in promoting cell growth

We have synthesized 2- and 8-monosubstituted and 2,8-disubstituted derivatives of the cytokinin 6-(3-methyl-2-butenylamino)purine (N⁶-isopentenyladenine) and have shown the dependence of growth-promoting activity in the tobacco bioassay upon the position, number, and type of substituent. The representative substituent groups were MeS, Me, MeSO₂, C₆H₅CH₂S, HS and Cl. The 8-methyl derivative was exceptional in being more active than the unsubstituted parent compound. In general, substitution in the 8-position decreases activity less than substitution in the 2-position, with the exception of the electron-attracting methylsulfonyl. Substitution in both the 2- and 8-positions lowers the activity more than substitution at either single position on the adenine nucleus, with the exception of the 2,8-dimethyl derivative. The chloro and methylthio derivatives show activity in the same range as the methyl derivatives, and the mercapto compounds, which exist mainly as CS tautomers, show somewhat less activity than the corresponding methylthio compounds. Bulky (C₆H₅CH₂S and MeSO₂) and strongly electron-attracting (MeSO₂) substituents cause relatively great reduction in cytokinin activity.     

Wetlands and global climate change: the role of wetland restoration in a changing world

Global climate change is recognized as a threat to species survival and the health of natural systems. Scientists worldwide are looking at the ecological and hydrological impacts resulting from climate change. Climate change will make future efforts to restore and manage wetlands more complex. Wetland systems are vulnerable to changes in quantity and quality of their water supply, and it is expected that climate change will have a pronounced effect on wetlands through alterations in hydrological regimes with great global variability. Wetland habitat responses to climate change and the implications for restoration will be realized differently on a regional and mega-watershed level, making it important to recognize that specific restoration and management plans will require examination by habitat. Floodplains, mangroves, seagrasses, saltmarshes, arctic wetlands, peatlands, freshwater marshes and forests are very diverse habitats, with different stressors and hence different management and restoration techniques are needed. The Sundarban (Bangladesh and India), Mekong river delta (Vietnam), and southern Ontario (Canada) are examples of major wetland complexes where the effects of climate change are evolving in different ways. Thus, successful long term restoration and management of these systems will hinge on how we choose to respond to the effects of climate change. How will we choose priorities for restoration and research? Will enough water be available to rehabilitate currently damaged, water-starved wetland ecosystems? This is a policy paper originally produced at the request of the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands and incorporates opinion, interpretation and scientific-based arguments.     

Response of French bean cultivars to water deficits: Changes in endogenous hormones, proline and chlorophyll

Effects of water stress at different stages of plant growth on leaf relative water content (RWC), osmotic potential (Ψos) and changes in contents of chlorophyll, abscisic acid (ABA), zeatin riboside (t-ZR), ethylene and proline in six cultivars of French bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) were studied. Under water stress, Ψos and RWC were highest in cv. Contender and lowest in cvs. IIHR-909 and Sel-2. The increase in contents of ABA and proline was marked in cv. Contender followed by cv. UPF-626. Decrease in t-ZR and chlorophyll contents was prominent in cv. IIHR-909. Ethylene production surged in all the cultivars under 4- and 8-d stress and declined under 12-d stress. This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.