PDCoV、SADS-CoV与SVA三重RT-PCR检测方法的建立与应用

【背景】猪丁型冠状病毒(porcine deltacoronavirus,PDCoV)、新型猪急性腹泻综合征冠状病毒(swine acute diarrhea syndrome coronavirus,SADS-CoV)与塞内卡病毒A型(Seneca virus A,SVA)均为猪的新发病原,严重危害养猪业的发展。猪感染这3种新发病原难以根据临床症状诊断,因此亟须建立多重RT-PCR检测方法对疑似患病猪进行快速诊断,以降低经济损失。【目的】建立能同时检测PDCoV、SADS-CoV和SVA单一或混合感染的三重RT-PCR检测方法。【方法】参考GenBank中登录的PDCoV和SADS-CoV N基因、SVA L/P1基因保守区域,设计3对特异性引物,以温度梯度PCR法确定最适退火温度(T_m);采用方阵法优化其引物浓度;构建重组质粒PMD-PDCoV、PMD-SADS-CoV和PMD-SVA作为标准品确定最小检测量(limits of detection,LOD);以猪传染性胃肠炎病毒、猪流行性腹泻病毒、猪繁殖与呼吸综合征病毒等6种常见感染猪的病毒核酸样本为模板,确定三重RT-PCR法的特异性;以批间和批内实验验证其重复性;经检测疑似感染的临床样本并与已报道的检测方法进行比较,评估其临床应用效果。【结果】最佳退火温度为58.3℃;引物最佳浓度分别为0.5、0.25和0.25μmol/L;其敏感性高,PMD-PDCoV、PMD-SADS-CoV与PMD-SVA最低检测限分别为1、1和10copies/μL;其特异性强,仅对PDCoV、SADS-CoV和SVA有特异性条带,对其他病毒均无扩增条带;该方法重复性好,批间和批内实验检测结果均一致。经临床样本检测PDCoV、SADS-CoV和SVA的阳性率分别为65.85%、30.49%和57.32%,与已报道的检测方法一致。最后从13份PDCoV、SADS-CoV和SVA均为阳性的样品中随机选取5份样品进行测序,并做同源性及进化树分析,结果显示5份阳性病料的PCR扩增序列之间相似性较高,而且和参考序列之间也具有较高的相似性,均可达到96%以上。表明本研究建立的方法在应用于临床样品检测中具有较高的准确性和可靠性。【结论】建立了一种能够同时快速检测PDCoV、SADS-CoV和SVA的三重RT-PCR方法,为临床上检测上述3种病毒提供了技术支撑。     

四种常见猪肠道病毒多重RT-PCR检测方法的建立及临床应用

【背景】猪流行性腹泻病毒(porcine epidemic diarrhea virus,PEDV)、猪传染性胃肠炎病毒(transmissible gastroenteritis virus,TGEV)、猪δ冠状病毒(porcine deltacoronavirus,PDCoV)和猪轮状病毒(porcine rotavirus,PoRV)是当前导致猪群发生病毒性腹泻的4种主要病原,并且常发生混合感染。【目的】建立一种可鉴别诊断这4种腹泻病毒病的检测方法,对于临床诊断具有重要意义。【方法】针对PEDV的M蛋白基因、TGEV的N蛋白基因、PDCoV的N蛋白基因和PoRV的VP7蛋白基因分别设计特异性引物,进而构建相应的重组质粒标准品。通过对PCR反应条件优化,建立可同时检测PEDV、TGEV、PDCoV和PoRV的多重RT-PCR检测方法。随后通过敏感性、特异性和重复性试验对该方法的有效性进行验证。【结果】敏感性试验结果显示,对PEDV-M、TGEV-N、PDCoV-N和PoRV-VP7重组质粒标准品的最低检测下限分别为1.75×10²、1.5×10³、1.6×10²和1.6×10²copies/μL;特异性试验结果显示,仅可检出本研究中的4种靶病毒,而猪群常见病毒CSFV、PRRSV、PCV2和PRV未能检出。重复性试验结果显示,选取10⁸、10⁶和10⁴copies/μL 3个不同浓度的重组质粒作为模板,其他条件不变,分别进行5次重复试验,5次试验均扩增出清晰、均匀的条带。对山东各地区送检的52份临床腹泻样品通过建立的四重RT-PCR方法进行检测,发现PEDV、TGEV、PDCoV和PoRV的阳性率分别为37%(19份)、6%(3份)、10%(5份)和25%(13份)。其中PEDV和PoRV混合感染2份(4%),PEDV和TGEV混合感染2份(4%),PEDV和PDCoV混合感染1份(2%)。通过单重RT-PCR对该多重RT-PCR临床样品检测结果进行重复验证,结果显示多重RT-PCR与常规单重RT-PCR结果符合率为100%。最后随机挑选5个检测为阳性的临床样本进行测序验证,结果均为相应病毒的基因片段。【结论】本研究建立了可同时检测PEDV、TGEV、PDCoV和PoRV的四重RT-PCR检测方法,研究结果为临床4种猪腹泻病毒病的鉴别诊断及流行病学调查提供了技术手段。     

基于猪德尔塔冠状病毒重组核衣壳蛋白的ELISA抗体检测方法的建立与评价

【目的】猪德尔塔冠状病毒(Porcine deltacoronavirus,PDCoV)是近年来新发现的一种猪肠道冠状病毒,2014年首次暴发于美国,随后亚洲多个国家也相继报道,对养猪业构成了巨大威胁。以大肠杆菌表达纯化的PDCoV重组核衣壳(N)蛋白为包被抗原,建立检测PDCoV抗体的间接ELISA方法,为PDCoV的血清抗体检测和流行病学调查提供工具。【方法】以PDCoV CHN-HN-2014株的基因组RNA为模板,通过RT-PCR扩增PDCoV核衣壳蛋白(N)基因的全长cDNA,将其插入原核表达载体pET-30a中,构建原核表达质粒p ET30a-N,转化大肠杆菌Rosetta(DE3),经异丙基-β-D-硫代半乳糖苷(Isopropyl-beta-D-thiogalactopyranoside,IPTG)诱导表达,以纯化的重组N蛋白为包被抗原,建立PDCoV N-ELISA抗体检测方法,评估其特异性、敏感性、稳定性,并用于临床血清的检测。【结果】SDS-PAGE电泳检测证实表达的重组N蛋白主要以可溶性形式存在,Western blotting证实表达的重组蛋白具有反应活性。用纯化的重组蛋白建立的N-ELISA具有良好的特异性、敏感性、稳定性。与中和试验同时检测148份免疫猪血清和102份临床血清,两种方法的阳性符合率为88.99%,阴性符合率为92.90%,总符合率为91.20%。用建立的ELISA方法检测267份临床血清,PDCoV抗体阳性血清的比率为66.67%。【结论】建立的猪德尔塔冠状病毒N-ELISA抗体检测方法与中和试验的符合率高,可用于PDCoV血清抗体检测和流行病学调查。     

猪繁殖与呼吸综合征病毒、猪圆环病毒三型、猪流感病毒三重RT-PCR检测方法建立及初步应用

【背景】猪繁殖与呼吸综合征病毒(porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus,PRRSV)、猪圆环病毒三型(porcine circovirus type III,PCV3)和猪流感病毒(swine influenza virus,SIV)是3种影响猪只健康的重要呼吸道病原,对养猪业造成严重的经济损失,因此需要建立高效快速的检测方法,以了解3种病原在国内的流行情况。【目的】建立能同时检测PRRSV、PCV3和SIV的三重RT-PCR方法,为3种病毒的流行病学调查和疾病监控提供技术支持。【方法】针对猪繁殖与呼吸综合征病毒(PRRSV),猪圆环病毒三型(PCV3),猪流感病毒(SIV)基因序列,分别设计3对特异性引物,扩增PRRSV M和N基因(436bp)、PCV3 Cap基因(619bp)和SIV M基因(199bp)。通过对退火温度和引物浓度优化建立三重RT-PCR检测方法,并对建立的多重检测方法进行特异性、敏感性、重复性试验验证。【结果】建立了能够同时快速检测PRRSV、PCV3、SIV的三重RT-PCR方法,而对猪瘟病毒(classical swine fever virus,CSFV)、猪伪狂犬病病毒(pseudorabies virus,PRV)、猪圆环病毒2型(porcine circovirus type II,PCV2)、猪细小病毒2型(porcine parvovirus II,PPV2)、猪细小病毒3型(porcine parvovirus III,PPV3)和猪细环病毒1型(torque teno sus virus I,TTSuV1)等6种病原的扩增均为阴性,特异性较好。敏感性结果显示,同时检测PRRSV、PCV3、SIV这3种病原的检测下限为100copies/μL,批间与批内试验结果均一致。用该方法对黑龙江省部分地区猪场的67份临床病料进行检测,结果显示PRRSV阳性率为16.5%,PCV3阳性率为10.5%,SIV阳性率为10.5%,而且存在混合感染。【结论】该方法灵敏度高、特异性强,能够应用于临床样品检测,有效预测病原的流行情况。     

猪丁型冠状病毒HB-BD株的分离与鉴定

猪丁型冠状病毒(Porcine deltacoronavirus,PDCoV)是一种新的引起仔猪腹泻的冠状病毒,目前国内对PDCoV分离的研究较少。为从腹泻仔猪粪便及肠道内容物中分离鉴定PDCoV,本研究将RT-PCR检测为PDCoV病原阳性的腹泻样本,接种到ST细胞,进行病毒的分离传代。通过观察其细胞病变,RT-PCR和间接免疫荧光方法检测鉴定,并对分离株的S、M、N基因进行测序鉴定及序列分析。结果成功分离得到了PDCoV HB-BD株。经序列同源性分析发现,HB-BD分离株S、M和N基因与近年来国内外的流行毒株同源性很高,核苷酸同源性分别为95.8%～99.1%、98.6%～99.4%和97.8%～99.4%。进化树分析表明HB-BD分离株与中国毒株亲缘关系比其他国家近,处于同一分支。结果证实从腹泻仔猪的肠道内容物中分离并鉴定得到了一株猪丁型冠状病毒,本研究为后续分离株的致病性及生物学特性研究奠定了基础。     

猪δ冠状病毒的研究进展

δ冠状病毒(Deltacoronavirus)是冠状病毒科冠状病毒亚科的新成员,可感染鸟类和哺乳动物。δ冠状病毒最早于2007年从亚洲豹猫和中国白鼬獾群中检测到。2014年,猪δ冠状病毒(Porcine Deltacoronavirus,PDCoV)在美国流行并成功分离到病毒,人工感染实验证实PDCoV可导致仔猪腹泻,具有较强的致病性,成为研究δ冠状病毒的良好模型。本文对PDCoV的发现、病原学、流行病学、致病性、培养与检测等方面进行综述。     

不同动物源性细胞系对猪丁型冠状病毒的易感性

[目的]探究猪丁型冠状病毒(porcine deltacoronavirus,PDCoV)能否在不同动物源性细胞系中感染和增殖.[方法]本研究将PDCoV四川分离株CHN-SC2015接种来自仓鼠、家禽、猴、人和猪的12种细胞系,将病毒在每种细胞系中盲传至少5代并通过逆转录-聚合酶链式反应(RT-PCR)、实时荧光定量...     

猪丁型冠状病毒诱导的细胞线粒体凋亡

猪丁型冠状病毒(Porcine deltacoronavirus,PDCoV)是一种新型的猪肠道致病性冠状病毒,可引起猪群剧烈腹泻及呕吐,但致病机制尚不清楚。本研究检测了PDCoV感染诱导的细胞凋亡。Caspase酶活性检测显示,在PDCoV感染的细胞中,caspase 3、caspase 8和caspase 9的活性随病毒感染量的增多而显著提高,类似的现象未能在紫外灭活病毒感染的细胞中观察到,表明PDCoV感染可同时激活内源性与外源性细胞凋亡通路,并暗示细胞凋亡的诱导依赖于病毒复制。为深入探究PDCoV诱导的内源性细胞凋亡,分别检测胞浆和线粒体中细胞色素C与凋亡诱导因子。结果显示,与正常细胞相比,PDCoV感染细胞从线粒体释放到胞浆的细胞色素C显著增多,且其释放量随着感染时间的延长而增多,而凋亡诱导因子始终定位于线粒体,提示PDCoV感染通过促使线粒体膜间隙的细胞色素C进入胞浆而启动caspase依赖的线粒体凋亡通路。本研究初步揭示了PDCoV诱导细胞凋亡的机制。     

猪塞内卡病毒A型间接ELISA抗体检测方法的建立

为了建立一种基于固相合成多肽技术的猪塞内卡病毒A型抗体血清学检测方法。本研究对猪塞内卡病毒A型VP1、VP2和VP3三种重要结构蛋白的B细胞表位进行设计并筛选到SVA1601、SVA1602、SVA1603和SVA1605共四条表位多肽,进而建立了一种用于检测猪塞内卡病毒A型抗体的间接ELISA方法,并验证该方法的检测敏感性、特异性、重复性以及与血清中和试验的符合率。试验结果显示,建立的间接ELISA方法对6份感染血清的最高稀释倍数为1:640,特异性为99.1%,批内和批间变异系数分别为2.4%～6.5%和4.4%～10.3%。与血清中和试验比较,符合率为97.7%。结果显示采用SVA1601、SVA1602、SVA1603和SVA1605建立的间接ELISA方法的敏感性较高,且重复性较好,可用于临床血清中猪塞内卡病毒A型特异性抗体的检测。     

1株猪δ冠状病毒N蛋白单克隆抗体制备与鉴定

【背景】猪δ冠状病毒(porcine deltacoronavirus,PDCoV)是一种新发现的猪肠道冠状病毒,主要引起以急性水样腹泻、呕吐和脱水等特征的胃肠道疾病。在PDCo V的4个结构蛋白中,核衣壳蛋白(nucleocapsid protein,N)为高度保守的结构蛋白,在病原诊断方面具有重要意义。【目的】以纯化的重组PDCo VN蛋白为抗原,制备抗N蛋白的单克隆抗体并进行特性鉴定。【方法】利用已构建的p ET-28a-N表达菌,经IPTG诱导表达获得具有免疫原性的重组N蛋白,并将纯化的重组N蛋白免疫BALB/c小鼠制备杂交瘤细胞,经3次亚克隆筛选,选取抗体效价最高的一株杂交瘤细胞注射小鼠腹腔并制备腹水单克隆抗体,利用Protein G亲和层析柱纯化。通过腹水单克隆抗体效价测定、抗体亚型鉴定、Western blot鉴定其特性;利用细胞间接免疫荧光试验、组织石蜡切片荧光试验、免疫组化、流式细胞荧光分选技术鉴定其诊断应用价值。【结果】经筛选后得到一株杂交瘤细胞命名为4E88,其腹水单克隆抗体效价为1:105,亚型为Ig G1型,轻链为κ链,Western blot试验表明该单克隆抗体与重组N蛋白和超速离心纯化的PDCo V全病毒反应形成特异性条带。此外,单克隆抗体4E88可以用于猪δ冠状病毒检测的间接免疫荧光试验、免疫组化染色和流式细胞荧光分选技术。【结论】研究获得的单克隆抗体4E88具有较好的反应性,为后续开展PDCo V鉴定、诊断和N蛋白功能研究等奠定基础。     

Land,livestock, and livelihoods: Changing dynamics of gender,caste, and ethnicity in a Nepalese Village

Over the past 10 years, Ghusel VDC, Lalitpur District has moved from primarily subsistence agriculture into the wider cash economy aided by the Small Farmers' Development Program (SFDP), which provides credit to farmers mainly for the purchase of buffalo for milk production, and by the National Dairy Corporation, which supports local dairy cooperatives. Analysis reveals that buffalo-keeping and milk sales are increasing the well-being of many households, while at the same time creating new inequalities in gender roles and responsibilities, greater inequities between Brahmin and Tamang residents in Ghusel, and placing pressures on the ecosystem for increased supplies of fodder and fuelwood. Evidence suggests that there is critical, need for attention to the social, and particularly gender-based, implications of maintaining livestock for milk sales and to the ecological underpinnings of this livelihood system.     

Highly flexible O,O′,N ligands and their Fe, Ni, Cu and Zn complexes

Three new chiral ligands bearing an O,O′,N donor set (O_methoxyO_hydroxyN_pyridine) were synthesised and coordinated to Fe^III, Fe^II, Ni^II, Cu^II and Zn^II to yield complexes with the general formula [M(OON)Cl_x]_y. While the pyridine N and the hydroxy O atoms coordinate strongly to all applied metal ions, the methoxy donor seems not to be involved in coordination, although some evidence for a weak interaction between O_Me and the Zn^II were found in NMR spectra. In the bidentate O′,N coordination mode the new ligands exhibit several coordination geometries as analysed in the solid compounds by XRD, EXAFS and EPR and in solution by UV-Vis absorption, cyclic voltammetry, EXAFS, EPR or NMR spectroscopy.     

Tuning of electronic properties of one-dimensional cyano-bridged Cu-Ni, Cu-Pd, and Cu-Pt bimetallic assemblies by stereochemistry of ligands

Preparations, XPS and electronic spectroscopy, and magnetism of seven new one-dimensional cyano-bridged coordination polymers, chiral [Cu(RR-chxn)₂][Pd(CN)₄] · 2H₂O (1), [Cu(trans-chxn)₂][M(CN)₄] · 2H₂O (2, 4, and 6 for M = Pd, Ni, and Pt), and [Cu(cis-chxn)₂][M(CN)₄] · 2H₂O (3, 5, and 7 for M = Pd, Ni, and Pt) (RR-chxn = cyclohexane-(1R,2R)-diamine, trans-chxn = racemic trans-cyclohexane-(1,2)-diamine, and cis-chxn = racemic cis-cyclohexane-(1,2)-diamine) have been reported in view of tuning of their electronic properties by stereochemistry of chxn ligands and metal-substitution. Comparison of Cu 2p_1/2 and 2p_3/2 peaks of XPS and broad d-d bands around 18 000 cm⁻¹ of electronic spectra are described systematically for 1-7. Variable-temperature magnetic measurement shows that complexes 1-7 indicate weak antiferromagnetic interactions via cyano-bridges. Because of semi-coordination coupled with pseudo Jahn-Teller elongation and electrostatic interaction for 1, the axial Cu-N coordination bond distances of 2.330(7) and 3.092(8) Å are considerably longer than those of equatorial ones in the range from 2.016(6) to 2.030(6) Å. The former bond distances of 1 are intermediate values among the related Ni (2.324(6) and 3.120(8) Å) and Pt (2.34(1) and 3.09(1) Å) complexes.     

Electromagnetic fields: mechanism,cell signaling,other bioprocesses,toxicity, radicals,antioxidants and beneficial effects

Electromagnetic fields (EMFs) played a role in the initiation of living systems, as well as subsequent evolution. The more recent literature on electrochemistry is documented, as well as magnetism. The large numbers of reports on interaction with living systems and the consequences are presented. An important aspect is involvement with cell signaling and resultant effects in which numerous signaling pathways participate. Much research has been devoted to the influence of man-made EMFs, e.g., from cell phones and electrical lines, on human health. The degree of seriousness is unresolved at present. The relationship of EMFs to reactive oxygen species (ROS) and oxidative stress (OS) is discussed. There is evidence that indicates a relationship involving EMFs, ROS, and OS with toxic effects. Various articles deal with the beneficial aspects of antioxidants (AOs) in countering the harmful influence from ROS-OS associated with EMFs. EMFs are useful in medicine, as indicated by healing bone fractures. Beneficial effects are recorded from electrical treatment of patients with Parkinson’s disease, depression, and cancer.     

Dispensable,Redundant, Complementary,and Cooperative Roles of Dopamine,Octopamine, and Serotonin in Drosophila melanogaster

To investigate the regulation of Drosophila melanogaster behavior by biogenic amines, we have exploited the broad requirement of the vesicular monoamine transporter (VMAT) for the vesicular storage and exocytotic release of all monoamine neurotransmitters. We used the Drosophila VMAT (dVMAT) null mutant to globally ablate exocytotic amine release and then restored DVMAT activity in either individual or multiple aminergic systems, using transgenic rescue techniques. We find that larval survival, larval locomotion, and female fertility rely predominantly on octopaminergic circuits with little apparent input from the vesicular release of serotonin or dopamine. In contrast, male courtship and fertility can be rescued by expressing DVMAT in octopaminergic or dopaminergic neurons, suggesting potentially redundant circuits. Rescue of major aspects of adult locomotion and startle behavior required octopamine, but a complementary role was observed for serotonin. Interestingly, adult circadian behavior could not be rescued by expression of DVMAT in a single subtype of aminergic neurons, but required at least two systems, suggesting the possibility of unexpected cooperative interactions. Further experiments using this model will help determine how multiple aminergic systems may contribute to the regulation of other behaviors. Our data also highlight potential differences between behaviors regulated by standard exocytotic release and those regulated by other mechanisms.     

Exosomes and their importance in metastasis,diagnosis, and therapy of colorectal cancer

Extracellular vesicles are known as actual intermediaries of intercellular communications, such as biological signals and cargo transfer between different cells. A variety of cells release the exosomes as nanovesicular bodies. Exosomes contain different compounds such as several types of nucleic acids and proteins. In this study, we focused on exosomes in colorectal cancer as good tools that can be involved in various cancer-related processes. Furthermore, we summarize the advantages and disadvantages of exosome extraction methods and review related studies on the role of exosomes in colorectal cancer. Finally, we focus on reports available on relations between mesenchymal stem cell–derived exosomes and colorectal cancer. Several cancer-related processes such as cancer progression, metastasis, and drug resistance of colorectal cancer are related to the cargoes of exosomes. A variety of molecules, especially proteins, microRNAs, and long noncoding RNAs, play important roles in these processes. The microenvironment features, such as hypoxia, also have very important effects on the properties of the origin cell–derived exosomes. On the other hand, exosomes derived from colorectal cancer cells also interfere with cancer chemoresistance. Furthermore, today it is known that exosomes and their contents can likely be very effective in noninvasive colorectal cancer diagnosis and therapy. Thus, exosomes, and especially their cargoes, play different key roles in various aspects of basic and clinical research related to both progression and therapy of colorectal cancer.     

Structures, magnetic properties, and XPS of one-dimensional cyanide-bridged Cu-Ni/Pt bimetallic assembly complexes

Synthesis, crystal structures, and spectroscopic and magnetic properties of new one-dimensional cyano-bridged bimetallic complexes, [Cu^II(N-Eten)₂][M^II(CN)₄] (N-Eten = N-ethylethylenediamine; M^II = Ni^II (1) and Pt^II (2)), have been reported. Both complexes consist of one-dimensional alternate chains of Cu^II and M^II moieties. The Pt-C bond distances of 1.997(3) and 2.001(3) Å for 2 are considerably longer than the Ni-C bond lengths of 1.866(3) and 1.872(3) Å for 1. Because of pseudo Jahn-Teller distortion, the axial Cu-N bond distances of 2.554(2) and 2.550(3) Å for 1 and 2 are longer than those of equatorial ones of 2.008(2) and 2.056(2) Å for 1 and 2.010(2) and 2.054(2) Å for 2. In contrast to M^II-C bond distances, the Cu-N ones of 1 are similar to those of 2 regardless of element-substitution. These complexes indicate weak antiferromagnetic interactions with Weiss constants = − 4.68 and −3.95 K for 1 and 2, respectively. The emission spectrum of 2 (λ_ex = 360 nm) exhibits a broad band with peaks at 22 800 and 24 000 cm⁻¹ at 298 K. The Cu 2p_1/2 and 2p_3/2 peaks of XPS spectra are compared systematically to various copper(II) complexes showing different bridging features or distorted coordination geometries as models for excited structures induced by external physical conditions. The spectroscopic properties are discussed from the viewpoint of magneto-optical properties.     

HIV and HCV: from Co-infection to epidemiology, transmission, pathogenesis, and treatment

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is the infectious agent causing acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), a deadliest scourge of human society. Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is a major causative agent of chronic liver disease and infects an estimated 170 million people worldwide, resulting in a serious public health burden. Due to shared routes of transmission, co-infection with HIV and HCV has become common among individuals who had high risks of blood exposures. Among hemophiliacs the co-infection rate accounts for 85%; while among injection drug users (IDU) the rate can be as high as 90%. HIV can accelerate the progression of HCV-related liver disease, particularly when immunodeficiency has developed. Although the effect of HCV on HIV infection is controversial, most studies showed an increase in mortality due to liver disease. HCV may act as a direct cofactor to fasten the progression of AIDS and decrease the tolerance of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HARRT). Conversely, HAART-related hepatotoxicity may enhance the progression of liver fibrosis. Due to above complications, co-infection with HCV and HIV-1 has imposed a critical challenge in the management of these patients. In this review, we focus on the epidemiology and transmission of HIV and HCV, the impact of the two viruses on each other, and their treatment.      

HIV and HCV： from Co-infection to Epidemiology, Transmission, Pathogenesis, and Treatment

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is the infectious agent causing acquired immu-nodeficiency syndrome (AIDS),a deadliest scourge of human society. Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is a major causative agent of chronic liver disease and infects an estimated 170 million people worldwide,resulting in a serious public health burden. Due to shared routes of transmission,co-infection with HIV and HCV has become common among individuals who had high risks of blood exposures. Among hemophiliacs the co-infection rate accounts for 85%; while among injection drug users (IDU) the rate can be as high as 90%. HIV can accelerate the progression of HCV-related liver disease,particularly when immunodeficiency has developed. Although the effect of HCV on HIV infection is controversial,most studies showed an increase in mortality due to liver disease. HCV may act as a direct cofactor to fasten the progression of AIDS and decrease the tolerance of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HARRT). Conversely,HAART-related hepatotoxicity may enhance the progression of liver fibrosis. Due to above complications,co-infection with HCV and HIV-1 has imposed a critical challenge in the management of these patients. In this review,we focus on the epidemiology and transmission of HIV and HCV,the impact of the two viruses on each other,and their treatment.