Ethnographic Note on Nation: Narratives and Symbols of the Early Post-socialist Nationalism in Lithuania

In the late 1980s and early 1990s Lithuania experienced the nationalist upheaval, which epitomized in the break up from the Soviet Union in 1990. Narratives and symbols were constitutive of the nationalist movement. “Nation” — the master symbol of that time — was reproduced in relation to the symbols of “the West,” and “the East,” as well as through the different values implied in “the West” and “the East” symbolism. Nationalist narratives reconstructed history and memory, reevaluated the present of the “reborn” nation, and drew the paths for the transition. Symbols and narratives were significant in mobilizing popular opinion, creating models for identity and action, and expressing moral and legitimate stances. They were a primary mechanism by which ideologies and cultural stances were shaped and maintained during the nationalist upheaval. In early 1990s the “nation” was redefined in the context of the Western tradition which was essential in communicating with the European countries and distancing from the former Soviet Union.     

Health and nutrition in Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union during the decade of transition: A review of the literature

The collapse of the Soviet Union was the most important historical event at the close of the 20th century. The jarring nature of this transition has resulted in large fluctuations in household resources and increased uncertainty in all facets of life for the individuals concerned. Much academic research and popular writing has explored the socioeconomic and political ramifications of bringing these countries into mainstream capitalism. This paper provides a review of the literature examining health outcomes in Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union during the transition period. The research, which has studied the human face of transition, spans multiple disciplines and it is thus currently difficult for interested researchers to obtain an overview of the basic facts, as well as, the more detailed nuances, concerning developments. This paper highlights what we currently know about health outcomes in transition countries and what we do not know, and suggests future areas of research which may help fill important gaps in our knowledge.     

How did East German genetics avoid Lysenkoism?

Lysenkoism gained favour in the Soviet Union during the 1930s and 1940s, replacing mendelian genetics. Opponents of Lysenko were dismissed from their jobs, imprisoned and, not infrequently, died. After World War II in some of the East European Soviet satellite states, Lysenkoism became the official genetics supported by the communist authorities, and thus, genetics and biology were set back many years. Yet the uptake of Lysenkoism was not uniform in the Eastern Bloc. The former East Germany (GDR) mostly escaped its influence, owing to the contribution of a few brave individuals and the fact that the country had an open border with the West (West Berlin).     

The New Dynamics of European Spaces since 1989

Since the collapse of the Soviet bloc, the term “Europe” has reached a new dimension. The fall of the Berlin Wall opened the East to the West and, in 1989, the European space moved up from two entities symbolically separated by a wall to one territorial unity. But we cannot say that this unity is a political one. This dichotomy is not based on two different political orientations, but on the adhesion or the non-adhesion to economic, political and especially moral principles. Thus two conceptions of the European space are competing. The term “Europe” has two major significations: firstly it refers to the European Union, and secondly to a Great Europe, including the states which have belonged to the former Soviet bloc. How can we define how this Great Europe perceived itself and what are its limits? The objective of this paper is to demonstrate that the two visions of the European space are under competition through two institutions. They convey two representations of this European space and imagine it in two perspectives. Therefore, the collapse of the Soviet bloc has altered in depth the perception of the European space and created a new dichotomy.     

Preliminary estimates of the potential for carbon mitigation in European soils through no-till farming

In this paper we estimate the European potential for carbon mitigation of no-till farming using results from European tillage experiments. Our calculations suggest some potential in terms of (a) reduced agricultural fossil fuel emissions, and (b) increased soil carbon sequestration. We estimate that 100% conversion to no-till farming would be likely to sequester about 23 Tg C y^–1 in the European Union or about 43 Tg C y^–1 in the wider Europe (excluding the former Soviet Union). In addition, up to 3.2 Tg C y^–1 could be saved in agricultural fossil fuel emissions. Compared to estimates of the potential for carbon sequestration of other carbon mitigation options, no-till agriculture shows nearly twice the potential of scenarios whereby soils are amended with organic materials. Our calculations suggest that 100% conversion to no-till agriculture in Europe could mitigate all fossil fuel-carbon emissions from agriculture in Europe. However, this is equivalent to only about 4.1% of total anthropogenic CO₂-carbon produced annually in Europe (excluding the former Soviet Union) which in turn is equivalent to about 0.8% of global annual anthropogenic CO₂-carbon emissions.     

Persistent Differences in Mortality Patterns across Industrialized Countries

The epidemiological transition has provided the theoretical background for the expectation of convergence in mortality patterns. We formally test and reject the convergence hypothesis for a sample of industrialized countries in the period from 1960 to 2008. After a period of convergence in the decade of 1960 there followed a sustained process of divergence with a pronounced increase at the end of the 1980''s, explained by trends within former Socialist countries (Eastern countries). While Eastern countries experienced abrupt divergence after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, differences within Western countries remained broadly constant for the whole period. Western countries transitioned from a strong correlation between life expectancy and variance in 1960 to no association between both moments in 2008 while Eastern countries experienced the opposite evolution. Taken together, our results suggest that convergence can be better understood when accounting for shared structural similarities amongst groups of countries rather than through global convergence.     

Obesity in Europe

Obesity, defined as a body mass index > 30 kg/m² is relatively common in Europe, particularly among women, and especially in Southern and Eastern European countries. Among men the distribution of body mass index values is surprisingly similar in most countries of Europe. Educational level is strongly inversely associated with the prevalence of obesity. Although differences in body mass index cannot entirely explain the large variation in risk factors and mortality from coronary heart disease, it can be shown that within populations an increased body mass index is associated with less favorable risk patterns. More research is needed to elucidate the reasons for the large variation in the prevalence of obesity among European women and to the health risks associated with obesity in different European countries.     

Diphtheria in Europe: current problems and new challenges

Diphtheria, caused by toxigenic strains of Corynebacterium diphtheriae, is an ancient disease with high incidence and mortality that has always been characterized by epidemic waves of occurrence. Whilst towards the beginning of the 1980s, many European countries were progressing towards the elimination of diphtheria, an epidemic re-emergence of diphtheria in the Russian Federation and the Newly Independent States of the former Soviet Union demonstrated a continuous threat of the disease into the 1990s. At present, the epidemic is under control and only sporadic cases are observed in Europe. However, the circulation of toxigenic strains is still observed in all parts of the world, posing a constant threat to the population with low levels of seroprotection. More recently, Corynebacterium ulcerans has been increasingly isolated as emerging zoonotic agent of diphtheria from companion animals such as cats or dogs, indicating the enduring threat of this thought-to-be controlled disease.     

The life cycle assessment management tool for technologies in eastern Europe: why and how

The knowledge and use of western-based environmental management tools like LCA (life cycle assessment) in Eastern Europe is very low. Discussions about introducing environmental management systems and taking care of environmental consequences of producing processes are very relevant now in Eastern European countries that want to become members of the European Union and to introduce their goods onto the international market. In this paper, the problems connected to introducing LCA based environmental management systems and Eco-Labeling in Eastern European countries are described. The poor financial condition of national sciences in Estonia does not appear to be the main problem. A brief overview of the development and current status of LCA research in Denmark, Finland and Japan is presented. Solutions to current problems are discussed, and experiences gained during conducting LCA research on oil shale energy production in Estonia are presented.     

HIV-1 A1 Subtype Epidemic in Italy Originated from Africa and Eastern Europe and Shows a High Frequency of Transmission Chains Involving Intravenous Drug Users

Background

Subtype A accounts for only 12% of HIV-1 infections worldwide but predominates in Russia and Former Soviet Union countries of Eastern Europe. After an early propagation via heterosexual contacts, this variant spread explosively among intravenous drug users. A distinct A1 variant predominates in Greece and Albania, which penetrated directly from Africa. Clade A1 accounts for 12.5% of non-B subtypes in Italy, being the most frequent after F1 subtype.

Aim

Aim of this study was to investigate the circulation of A1 subtype in Italy and trace its origin and diffusion through phylogenetic and phylodynamic approaches.

Results

The phylogenetic analysis of 113 A1 pol sequences included in the Italian ARCA database, indicated that 71 patients (62.8%) clustered within 5 clades. A higher probability to be detected in clusters was found for patients from Eastern Europe and Italy (88.9% and 60.4%, respectively) compared to those from Africa (20%) (p < .001). Higher proportions of clustering sequences were found in intravenous drug users with respect to heterosexuals (85.7% vs. 59.3%, p = .056) and in women with respect to men (81.4% vs. 53.2%, p < .006). Subtype A1 dated phylogeny indicated an East African origin around 1961. Phylogeographical reconstruction highlighted 3 significant groups. One involved East European and some Italian variants, the second encompassed some Italian and African strains, the latter included the majority of viruses carried by African and Italian subjects and all viral sequences from Albania and Greece.

Conclusions

Subtype A1 originated in Central Africa and spread among East European countries in 1982. It entered Italy through three introduction events: directly from East Africa, from Albania and Greece, and from the area encompassing Moldavia and Ukraine. As in previously documented A1 epidemics of East European countries, HIV-1 A1 subtype spread in Italy in part through intravenous drug users. However, Eastern European women contributed to the penetration of such variant, probably through sex work.     

Post‐Soviet farmland abandonment,forest recovery,and carbon sequestration in western Ukraine

Land use is a critical factor in the global carbon cycle, but land‐use effects on carbon fluxes are poorly understood in many regions. One such region is Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union, where land‐use intensity decreased substantially after the collapse of socialism, and farmland abandonment and forest expansion have been widespread. Our goal was to examine how land‐use trends affected net carbon fluxes in western Ukraine (57 000 km²) and to assess the region's future carbon sequestration potential. Using satellite‐based forest disturbance and farmland abandonment rates from 1988 to 2007, historic forest resource statistics, and a carbon bookkeeping model, we reconstructed carbon fluxes from land use in the 20th century and assessed potential future carbon fluxes until 2100 for a range of forest expansion and logging scenarios. Our results suggested that the low‐point in forest cover occurred in the 1920s. Forest expansion between 1930 and 1970 turned the region from a carbon source to a sink, despite intensive logging during socialism. The collapse of the Soviet Union created a vast, but currently largely untapped carbon sequestration potential (up to～150 Tg C in our study region). Future forest expansion will likely maintain or even increase the region's current sink strength of 1.48 Tg C yr^?1. This may offer substantial opportunities for offsetting industrial carbon emissions and for rural development in regions with otherwise diminishing income opportunities. Throughout Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union, millions of hectares of farmland were abandoned after the collapse of socialism; thus similar reforestation opportunities may exist in other parts of this region.     

Molecular epidemiology of terrestrial rabies in the former Soviet Union

Fifty-five rabies virus isolates originating from different regions of the former Soviet Union (FSU) were compared with isolates originating from Eurasia, Africa, and North America according to complete or partial nucleoprotein (N) gene sequences. The FSU isolates formed five distinct groups. Group A represented viruses originating from the Arctic, which were similar to viruses from Alaska and Canada. Group B consisted of "Arctic-like" viruses, originating from the south of East Siberia and the Far East. Group C consisted of viruses circulating in the steppe and forest-steppe territories from the European part of Russia to Tuva and in Kazakhstan. These three phylogenetic groups were clearly different from the European cluster. Viruses of group D circulate near the western border of Russia. Their phylogenetic position is intermediate between group C and the European cluster. Group E consisted of viruses originating from the northwestern part of Russia and comprised a "northeastern Europe" group described earlier from the Baltic region. According to surveillance data, a specific host can be defined clearly only for group A (arctic fox; Alopex lagopus) and for the Far Eastern part of the group B distribution area (raccoon dog; Nyctereutes procyonoides). For other territories and rabies virus variants, the red fox (Vulpes vulpes) is the main virus reservoir. However, the steppe fox (Vulpes corsac), wolf (Canis lupus), and raccoon dog are also involved in virus circulation, depending on host population density. These molecular data, joined with surveillance information, demonstrate that the current fox rabies epizootic in the territory of the FSU developed independently of central and western Europe. No evidence of positive selection was found in the N genes of the isolates. In the glycoprotein gene, evidence of positive selection was strongly suggested in codons 156, 160, and 183. At these sites, no link between amino acid substitutions and phylogenetic placement or specific host species was detected.     

HIV-infection in Estonia

Only a few cases of clinical AIDS have been diagnosed in the Baltic countries that previously were part of the Soviet Union. This suggests that the spread of HIV-infection has been much slower than in several other countries belonging to the previous Eastern Europe. To get a more precise picture of the situation, we have analyzed the data from seroepidemiological screening programs that have been conducted in Estonia since June 1987. Large population groups were tested according to a decree by the former soviet All-Union center on AIDS. On several occasions the tests were mandatory and probably had a coverage close to 100%. After more than a million serum samples were tested, 29 HIV-infected persons, 3 women and 26 men have been identified. One of them was HIV-2 positive. Most of them live in Tallinn, the capital city of Estonia. All cases probably have a sexually transmitted infection. In one the infection has proceeded to clinical AIDS. Analysis of the gene sequences of several strains suggests that the strains are closely related and that the number of sources of infection is quite small. The study suggests that the spread of HIV in Estonia is still quite limited. A contributing factor may be the restricted possibilities for travel to the Western countries during the Soviet era.     

Editor's Note

I am pleased to announce the addition of four distinguished psychologists to the editorial board of this journal. Consistent with the broadening of the journal's focus to include East European countries as well as Russia, the new board members are our initial representatives from Eastern Europe.     

The genetic structure of cattle populations (Bos taurus) in northern Eurasia and the neighbouring Near Eastern regions: implications for breeding strategies and conservation

We investigated the genetic structure and variation of 21 populations of cattle (Bos taurus) in northern Eurasia and the neighbouring Near Eastern regions of the Balkan, the Caucasus and Ukraine employing 30 microsatellite markers. By analyses of population relationships, as well as by a Bayesian-based clustering approach, we identified a genetic distinctness between populations of modern commercial origin and those of native origin. Our data suggested that northern European Russia represents the most heavily colonized area by modern commercial cattle. Further genetic mixture analyses based on individual assignment tests found that native Red Steppe cattle were also employed in the historical breeding practices in Eastern Europe, most probably for incorporating their strong and extensive adaptability. In analysis of molecular variance, within-population differences accounted for approximately 90% of the genetic variation. Despite some correspondence between geographical proximity and genetic similarity, genetic differentiation was observed to be significantly associated with the difference in breeding purpose among the European populations (percentage of variance among groups and significance: 2.99%, P = 0.02). Our findings give unique genetic insight into the historical patterns of cattle breeding practices in the former Soviet Union. The results identify the neighbouring Near Eastern regions such as the Balkan, the Caucasus and Ukraine, and the isolated Far Eastern Siberia as areas of 'genetic endemism', where cattle populations should be given conservation priority. The results will also be of importance for cost-effective management of their future utilization.     

Obesity in Eastern Europe: An overview of its health and economic implications

AIMS: To assess the evolution and patterns of obesity in countries of the WHO European Region with a particular focus on the Eastern European countries, and to discuss the health and economic implications of obesity for those countries. METHODS: The available data on overweight and obesity in children and adults for the countries of the WHO European countries were collated from the International Obesity TaskForce database and considered in the light of estimates for the costs of obesity-related ill health. RESULTS: Overweight and obesity in most countries of Europe show rising secular trends, and are predicted to continue rising if not addressed. Estimates of the costs to the health services and to economic productivity indicate that some countries may find it hard to cope with the burden of obesity: up to 6% of total health care costs and as much in indirect costs of lost productivity could be attributed to obesity and its associated illnesses. CONCLUSIONS: Transition, despite the many benefits it has undoubtedly conferred to the population living in the Region, has also entailed the collateral damage of a fast growing obesity challenge. Policy-makers in the new and candidate EU countries as well as other countries of the European Region can learn from the negative Western European and global experience, act now to stem the obesity epidemic from further developing and in so doing, reduce the substantial economic losses associated with obesity. Local, national and international strategies will be needed to combat the problem.     

Europe and ESTRO moving East. A story of betrayal and redemption—Candid observations by a privileged witness

After briefly looking into the dramatic twist of history that caused Central- and Eastern Europe to be separated from the West, the author observes the impact of 40 years of cold war and isolation on the state of radiotherapy (RT) in Central Europe. From her privileged position as a staff member in charge of public relations and society development at the European Society for Therapeutic Radiology and Oncology (ESTRO), she witnesses and helps drive the “rapprochement” between radiation oncology professionals from both sides of the former iron curtain. Thanks to substantial support from target tailored EU projects, ESTRO was in a position to give a powerful impulse to the re-integration of Central European RT in the mainstream of European health care. The author describes from her own and privileged perspective the excitement of discovering the rich heritage of a shared common past and expresses her concern that in the dynamic repositioning of Europe''s point of gravity towards the East, the multiple but still fragile links between Central- and West European radiotherapy, tied within ESTRO, should not get dissolved in transition.     

The World Health Organisation. WHO in Europe: does it have a role?

WHO is under pressure from all sides to justify its existence. Donors want to know what they are getting for their money, and health professionals question the relevance of the organisation''s work. The pressure to justify itself is perhaps strongest of all in Europe, where most member countries have fully fledged health infrastructures and high overall levels of health. Now there is the additional threat of encroachment into the field of public health by the European Union. The disintegration of the Soviet bloc has given WHO''s regional office in Europe a new sense of purpose and led to a major shift in resources towards the countries of central and eastern Europe. But WHO''s critics are calling for a different shift in the way its European office works: from its current concentration on broad based policy issues to the nitty-gritty of health care management and delivery.     

A Word About the Change from Soviet Psychology to Journal of Russian and East European Psychology

With the final disintegration of the Soviet Union in December 1991, the title Soviet Psychology suddenly belonged to history. After considering all the unsatisfactory alternatives, the editors and I have decided to rename it Journal of Russian and East European Psychology.