Health and nutrition in Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union during the decade of transition: A review of the literature

The collapse of the Soviet Union was the most important historical event at the close of the 20th century. The jarring nature of this transition has resulted in large fluctuations in household resources and increased uncertainty in all facets of life for the individuals concerned. Much academic research and popular writing has explored the socioeconomic and political ramifications of bringing these countries into mainstream capitalism. This paper provides a review of the literature examining health outcomes in Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union during the transition period. The research, which has studied the human face of transition, spans multiple disciplines and it is thus currently difficult for interested researchers to obtain an overview of the basic facts, as well as, the more detailed nuances, concerning developments. This paper highlights what we currently know about health outcomes in transition countries and what we do not know, and suggests future areas of research which may help fill important gaps in our knowledge.     

Determinants of obesity in transition economies: The case of Russia

This paper examines human obesity, measured as weight and body mass index (BMI), and its determinants in Russia. Obesity increased dramatically during transition from a planned to a market economy, by 38%. We determine the factors contributing to rising obesity using individual level data from the Russia Longitudinal Monitoring Survey for 1994 and 2004. We find a strong positive effect of diet/caloric intake and a strong negative effect of smoking on weight and BMI. Gender, education, and income are other major determinants of obesity. Our analysis provides information on dietary patterns and other determinants of obesity in Russia which is essential for formulation and implementation of effective policies designed to reduce the problem and improve the health of the population.     

Overweight trends among Polish schoolchildren before and after the transition from communism to capitalism

This study aims to reveal the secular trends in body mass index (BMI) and the prevalence of overweight and obesity among Polish schoolchildren between the years 1966–2012, during which intense socio-political changes took place. Four surveys were conducted in several districts of Poland looking at 69,746 schoolchildren aged 7–18. Significant increase in mean BMI as well as in the prevalence of overweight and obesity was observed. During this time the highest increase in both mean BMI and excess weight was observed between 1988 and 2012, i.e. after the political transformation, resulting in the improvement of living conditions. However, with respect to girls in late adolescence, between these years, the mean BMI as well as the prevalence of overweight were leveling off, while the percentage of boys with excess body fat in the same developmental category significantly increased in 2012. In the years 1966–1978 and 1978–1988 the pattern of changes in the prevalence of overweight and obesity reflected the social and economic circumstances, i.e. temporary economic improvements, or deepening political crises and food shortage. In conclusion, the weight status of schoolchildren strongly reflects socio-political changes that took place in Poland, as well as in most of the Central European countries in the last half century.     

Obesity in Eastern Europe: An overview of its health and economic implications

AIMS: To assess the evolution and patterns of obesity in countries of the WHO European Region with a particular focus on the Eastern European countries, and to discuss the health and economic implications of obesity for those countries. METHODS: The available data on overweight and obesity in children and adults for the countries of the WHO European countries were collated from the International Obesity TaskForce database and considered in the light of estimates for the costs of obesity-related ill health. RESULTS: Overweight and obesity in most countries of Europe show rising secular trends, and are predicted to continue rising if not addressed. Estimates of the costs to the health services and to economic productivity indicate that some countries may find it hard to cope with the burden of obesity: up to 6% of total health care costs and as much in indirect costs of lost productivity could be attributed to obesity and its associated illnesses. CONCLUSIONS: Transition, despite the many benefits it has undoubtedly conferred to the population living in the Region, has also entailed the collateral damage of a fast growing obesity challenge. Policy-makers in the new and candidate EU countries as well as other countries of the European Region can learn from the negative Western European and global experience, act now to stem the obesity epidemic from further developing and in so doing, reduce the substantial economic losses associated with obesity. Local, national and international strategies will be needed to combat the problem.     

Effect of ID ACE gene polymorphism on dietary composition and obesity-related anthropometric parameters in the Czech adult population

The aim of this study was to investigate the possible associations between insertion/deletion (ID) polymorphism in angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) (dbSNP rs 4646994) with the food intake and body composition in the Czech non-obese, obese and extremely obese populations. A total of 453 various-weighted individuals were enrolled in the study and were according to their BMI assigned into following subgroups, such as obese (30 ≤ BMI < 40), morbidly obese (BMI ≥40) and non-obese (20 < BMI < 30) subjects. Both the obese cases and the non-obese controls underwent the identical subset of standardized examinations (BMI, % body fat, waist-to-hip ratio, skin fold thickness, native dietary composition examined by 7-day food records, etc.). No significant case–control differences in genotype distributions or allelic frequencies were observed. There were no differences in genotype frequencies between males and females either. The prevalence of obesity was significantly higher among subjects with the II genotype (42 %) when compared with those with DD (36%) and those with ID (37%) genotypes (P = 0.04). When compared with carbohydrate intake in the whole studied cohort, the odds ratios of carrying the DD allele in the morbidly obese cohort were 0.84 (95% CI 0.34, 2.10, P = 0.17), 0.27 (0.07, 0.98, P = 0.02), and 4.25 (1.44, 12.51, P = 0.005) in those individuals consuming <210, 210–260, and >260 g of carbohydrates/day, respectively. Based on our findings, the ID ACE polymorphism could represent a gene modulator of carbohydrate intake in morbidly obese Czech population; the strong significant effect of DD genotype was observed in the phenotypes of extreme obesity with the highest carbohydrate intake.     

Forest transitions in Eastern Europe and their effects on carbon budgets

Forests often rebound from deforestation following industrialization and urbanization, but for many regions our understanding of where and when forest transitions happened, and how they affected carbon budgets remains poor. One such region is Eastern Europe, where political and socio‐economic conditions changed drastically over the last three centuries, but forest trends have not yet been analyzed in detail. We present a new assessment of historical forest change in the European part of the former Soviet Union and the legacies of these changes on contemporary carbon stocks. To reconstruct forest area, we homogenized statistics at the provincial level for ad 1700–2010 to identify forest transition years and forest trends. We contrast our reconstruction with the KK11 and HYDE 3.1 land change scenarios, and use all three datasets to drive the LPJ dynamic global vegetation model to calculate carbon stock dynamics. Our results revealed that forest transitions in Eastern Europe occurred predominantly in the early 20th century, substantially later than in Western Europe. We also found marked geographic variation in forest transitions, with some areas characterized by relatively stable or continuously declining forest area. Our data suggest extensive deforestation in European Russia already prior to ad 1700, and even greater deforestation in the 18th and 19th centuries than in the KK11 and HYDE scenarios. Based on our reconstruction, cumulative carbon emissions from deforestation were greater before 1700 (60 Pg C) than thereafter (29 Pg C). Summed over our entire study area, forest transitions led to a modest uptake in carbon over recent decades, with our dataset showing the smallest effect (<5.5 Pg C) and a more heterogeneous pattern of source and sink regions. This suggests substantial sequestration potential in regrowing forests of the region, a trend that may be amplified through ongoing land abandonment, climate change, and CO₂ fertilization.     

A putative physiological role of hypothalamic CNTF in the control of energy homeostasis

Administration of CNTF durably reduces food intake and body weight in obese humans and rodent models. However, the involvement of endogenous CNTF in the central regulation of energy homeostasis needs to be elucidated. Here, we demonstrate that CNTF and its receptor are expressed in the arcuate nucleus, a key hypothalamic region controlling food intake, and that CNTF levels are inversely correlated to body weight in rats fed a high-sucrose diet. Thus endogenous CNTF may act, in some individuals, as a protective factor against weight gain during hypercaloric diet and could account for individual differences in the susceptibility to obesity.     

Tick-borne encephalitis incidence in Central and Eastern Europe: consequences of political transition

The variable, often dramatic, upsurge in tick-borne encephalitis in Central and Eastern Europe can best be understood as the result of a multi-factorial system of causes, including abiotic and biotic environmental changes, and human behaviour determined by socio-economic conditions. Many of these stem from the political transition with the end of Soviet rule.     

Influence of dietary pattern,physical activity,and I148M PNPLA3 on steatosis severity in at-risk adolescents

Evidence relating dietary patterns to obesity and related disorders such as non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is limited in pediatric age. Aim of this study was to analyze the association between dietary patterns, obesity and development of severe steatosis and the metabolic syndrome in a series of children and adolescents referred for suspected NAFLD, and the interaction with the rs738409 I148M PNPLA3 polymorphism. Two hundred patients (112 females) had completed a food frequency and demographic questionnaire. Nearly 58 % were obese, and 32 % were overweight. Mild, moderate, and severe fatty liver was present in 60 (30 %), 87 (44 %), and 51 (26 %) participants, respectively. A great proportion of overweight/obese children and adolescents reported a correct dietary pattern. At multivariate ordinal regression analysis considering demographic, anthropometric, genetic, and behavioral determinants, the major determinant of steatosis severity was PNPLA3 I148M genotype (p < 0.0001), followed by older age (p = 0.017), higher waist circumference (p = 0.016), and less time spent practising physical exercise (p = 0.034). Furthermore, there was a significant interaction between PNPLA3 I148M and intake of sweetened beverages (p = 0.033) and of vegetables (p = 0.038). In conclusion, although dietary pattern was reportedly correct in at-risk overweight adolescents with NAFLD, we report a novel interaction between PNPLA3 I148M and dietary components with the severity of steatosis.     

Global diversity of dietary intakes and standards for zinc,iron, and copper

BackgroundThe essentiality of trace elements in human diets is well recognized and adequate levels are a critical component of optimal health. To date, public health efforts have focused primarily on macronutrients or trace minerals that are easily analyzed. The goal of this research is to provide assessment of the dietary standards developed for Zn, Fe, and Cu in 100+ developed, marginal, and developing countries. We summarize the current recommendations and changes from the last decade, categorize and provide scientific basis for values established, factors that affect requirements, and current global challenges.MethodsThe electronic databases of Google Scholar, PubMed, Embase, Web of Science and Cochrane Library were searched using the keywords “trace minerals,” “micronutrients, ““zinc,” “iron,” “copper,” “dietary standards” and “recommendations.” A total of 123 studies published from 1965 to 2019 were included.ResultsThe World Health Organization (WHO) has established dietary standards to address nutrient deficiencies, prevent infections and ensure basic metabolic functions; these are utilized by most developing countries. Developed countries or their alliances have established values similar to or higher than the WHO, primarily for promotion of optimal health and well-being. Transitional countries are more concerned with issues of bioavailability, food security and undernutrition. Globally, Zn and Cu recommendations are lower in women than in men; Fe requirements are higher to compensate for menstrual losses. Important considerations in establishing guidelines for these minerals include bioaccessibility, dietary practices and restrictions, food processing, interactions, and chemical forms. The global challenges of the triple burden of malnutrition, hidden hunger, increased consumption of ultra-processed foods and obesity have been associated with Zn, Fe, and Cu deficiencies.ConclusionThis research provides public policy and health professionals evidenced-based information useful for the establishment of dietary standards world-wide.     

Biological costs of economic transition: Stress levels during the transition from communism to capitalism in Poland

At the end of the 1980s, Poland began the transformation from an essentially one-party communist system to a politically pluralistic democratic system. These political and economic changes had major social consequences, among others unemployment and a sharp decrease in real personal income. The aim of the study was to investigate the possible relationship between stress in adult men, measured by the Allostatic Load, and the socio-economic deterioration during the first part of the economic transition. The Allostatic Load included eleven markers assessing adverse nutritional intake, cardiovascular activity, inflammatory processes, and lung, hepatic and renal functions. The results indicate a significantly higher risk of metabolic dysregulation in men examined after 1990, compared to men from previous years. After adjustment for socioeconomic variables and lifestyle variables, men examined in 1991 had a 31% greater risk of higher Allostatic Load compared with men examined in 1985 (OR = 1.31; p = 0.0541), in 1992, this risk was 50% greater (OR = 1.50; p < 0.01), and in 1993, the risk was 66% greater (OR = 1.66; p < 0.05). The conclusion is drawn that significantly more stressogenic factors for men were those directly connected with the financial situation of their families, than a sudden but short increase of prices for goods and services.     

Political Change and Factors Limiting Numbers of Wild and Domestic Ungulates in Kazakhstan

We examine factors regulating numbers of domestic livestock and saiga antelopes during the major periods of Kazakhstan's history. In the pre-Soviet period livestock migrations were relatively unrestricted and covered huge distances. Little winter feed or veterinary care was provided for domestic livestock and numbers were regulated largely by winter snow or ice cover. Drought affected fecundity but did not cause large-scale mortality. During the Soviet period the provision of winter feed shielded domestic livestock from winter mortality while hunting controls allowed saiga numbers to recover from overhunting. Livestock and saiga numbers during this period were high and there is evidence that productivity was affected. However, there were no crashes in livestock numbers linked to high densities, probably because rainfall variability is relatively low and catastrophic droughts are rare. Today livestock numbers in Kazakhstan have crashed because of the withdrawal of state support and the use of animals as currency. The collapse of the state also meant the end of hunting controls and increased poverty, which has lead to widespread saiga poaching and dramatic population declines.     

Virtual screening of mandelate racemase mutants with enhanced activity based on binding energy in the transition state

Mandelate racemase (MR) is a promising candidate for the dynamic kinetic resolution of racemates. However, the poor activity of MR towards most of its non-natural substrates limits its widespread application. In this work, a virtual screening method based on the binding energy in the transition state was established to assist in the screening of MR mutants with enhanced catalytic efficiency. Using R-3-chloromandelic acid as a model substrate, a total of 53 mutants were constructed based on rational design in the two rounds of screening. The number of mutants for experimental validation was brought down to 17 by the virtual screening method, among which 14 variants turned out to possess improved catalytic efficiency. The variant V26I/Y54V showed 5.2-fold higher catalytic efficiency (k_cat/K_m) towards R-3-chloromandelic acid than that observed for the wild-type enzyme. Using this strategy, mutants were successfully obtained for two other substrates, R-mandelamide and R-2-naphthylglycolate (V26I and V29L, respectively), both with a 2-fold improvement in catalytic efficiency. These results demonstrated that this method could effectively predict the trend of mutational effects on catalysis. Analysis from the energetic and structural assays indicated that the enhanced interactions between the active sites and the substrate in the transition state led to improved catalytic efficiency. It was concluded that this virtual screening method based on the binding energy in the transition state was beneficial in enzyme rational redesign and helped to better understand the catalytic properties of the enzyme.     

Hybridization of two forms of ninespine stickleback,Pungitius pungitius and P. platygaster,under experimental conditions and an attempt to predict the consequences of their contact in nature

Synopsis In aquaria and in ponds crosses were made between two closely related allopatric forms of ninespine stickleback of the genus Pungitius (P. pungitius and P. platygaster). There were no ethological isolation mechanisms; F₁, F₂ and F₃ hybrids are fertile; experimental hybrid stocks as well as backcrosses maintain themselves for at least three generations. F₁ hybrids are readily distinguishable from parental forms by a combination of morphological characters; F₂ hybrids grown in the north near the Arctic circle, are morphologically similar to P. pungitius. The southern form P. platygaster does not survive in northern conditions; eggs of the northern form P. pungitius die at a temperature of 28°C, normal for the spawning of the southern form. By 9 out of 19 studied morphological characters there are distinctions between the two forms. Therefore, ecologically and morphologically the two forms have diverged rather significantly. On the other hand, ethologically and genetically (as judged by the absence of postmating isolating mechanisms) the forms have diverged only slightly. As a result, the differences between the two forms are considered not to exceed the subspecies or at least semispecies rank.In recent years, due to a disturbance of the ranges of both these forms in Eurasia, a tendency for a secondary contact between P. pungitius and P. platygaster appeared in the basins of the rivers Volga and Irtysh. In the immediate future the two forms are expected to come into contact. From our data we predict possible introgressive hybridization between the northern and sourthern forms in natural conditions.     

The reaction force and the transition region of a reaction

The reaction force F(R) and the position-dependent reaction force constant κF(R) are defined by F(R)=-∂V(R)/∂R and κ(R)=∂²V(R)/∂R², where V(R) is the potential energy of a reacting system along a coordinate R. The minima and maxima of F(R) provide a natural division of the process into several regions. Those in which F(R) is increasing are where the most dramatic changes in electronic properties take place, and where the system goes from activated reactants (at the force minimum) to activated products (at the force maximum). κ(R) is negative throughout such a region. We summarize evidence supporting the idea that a reaction should be viewed as going through a transition region rather than through a single point transition state. A similar conclusion has come out of transition state spectroscopy. We describe this region as a chemically-active, or electronically-intensive, stage of the reaction, while the ones that precede and follow it are structurally-intensive. Finally, we briefly address the time dependence of the reaction force and the reaction force constant.     

Interactions between negative energy balance,metabolic diseases,uterine health and immune response in transition dairy cows

The biological cycles of milk production and reproduction determine dairying profitability thus making management decisions dynamic and time-dependent. Diseases also negatively impact on net earnings of a dairy enterprise. Transition cows in particular face the challenge of negative energy balance (NEB) and/or disproportional energy metabolism (fatty liver, ketosis, subacute, acute ruminal acidosis); disturbed mineral utilization (milk fever, sub-clinical hypocalcemia); and perturbed immune function (retained placenta, metritis, mastitis). Consequently NEB and reduced dry matter intake are aggravated. The combined effects of all these challenges are reduced fertility and milk production resulting in diminishing profits. Risk factors such as NEB, inflammation and impairment of the immune response are highly cause-and-effect related. Thus, managing cows during the transition period should be geared toward reducing NEB or feeding specially formulated diets to improve immunity. Given that all cows experience a reduced feed intake and body condition, infection and inflammation of the uterus after calving, there is a need for further research on the immunology of transition dairy cows. Integrative approaches at the molecular, cellular and animal level may unravel the complex interactions between disturbed metabolism and immune function that predispose cows to periparturient diseases.     

Modelling sediment supply to rivers and reservoirs in Eastern Europe during and after the collectivisation period

The present paper reports the results on the occurrence and composition of steady state phytoplankton assemblages in the shallow water bodies of 18 Bulgarian natural wetlands. They all differ in their morphometry, hydrology and trophic state. Steady states were identified according to Sommer & Padisák (1993) when (i) 1, 2 or 3 species of algae contribute more than 80% of total biomass, (ii) their existence or coexistence persists for long enough (more than 1–2 weeks) and (iii) during that period the total biomass does not increase significantly. These situations were rare and were dominated by 7 stress-tolerant, colony-forming and ruderal disturbance-tolerant cyanoprokaryotes (Microcystis aeruginosa, Microcystis wesenbergii, Anabaena spiroides, Anabaenopsis arnoldii, Aphanizomenon flos-aquae, Aphanizomenon gracile and Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii). The equilibrium states had been registered only during hypertrophic conditions in three stressed and frequently disturbed shallow water bodies and were related to the summer – late summer season.     

Our stolen figures: The interface of sexual differentiation,endocrine disruptors,maternal programming,and energy balance

This article is part of a Special Issue “Energy Balance”.     

Water footprint and irrigation use efficiency of important crops in Northern Cyprus from an environmental,economic and dietary perspective

Availability of freshwater is currently one of the most important limiting factors for crop production and food security throughout the world. Northern Cyprus is one of the world’s most important countries that has been facing drought and salinization problems since the 1970 s. The present study aimed to determine the irrigation use efficiency (IUE), irrigation economic productivity (IEP), irrigation economic efficiency (IEE) and irrigation dietary efficiency (IDE) of some major crops in Northern Cyprus to ensure better planning for sustainable water management, not only for Northern Cyprus but also for all countries facing similar problems. The results of the present study showed that both carob and fig crops require the least amount (24 L) of irrigation to produce 1 kg of fruit, and “open field” lettuce and “greenhouse” eggplant require the least amount (10 and 16 L) of irrigation to produce 1 kg of vegetables in Northern Cyprus. The irrigation economic productivity (IEP) and irrigation dietary efficiency (IDE) of crops were also found to be significantly different and meaningful for different crops. Our results showed that reshaping the distribution of crops based on their water consumption would reduce the use of water resources while continuing to feed the population.     

Extrinsic vs. intrinsic food shortage and the strength of feeding links: effects of density and food availability on feeding rate of Hyphydrus ovatus

Summary We use field and laboratory experiments to determine whether Hyphydrus ovatus, a predatory aquatic beetle, is food limited, and whether any food shortage results from depletion of prey by these predators (intrinsic food shortage) or is independent of predation by these beetles (extrinsic food shortage). In the laboratory, differences in feeding rate influence body fat content, thus making fat content a useful index of recent feeding history. H. ovatus collected during the breeding season have fat contents significantly greater than those of H. ovatus starved for 25 days, but not significantly different from those of H. ovatus fed ad libitum for 25 days, indicating that natural feeding rates are near the maximum possible. H. ovatus confined at a density 60 times greater than natural show reduced fat content and feeding rate relative to natural, indicating that at very high densities H. ovatus is capable of depleting its prey. Addition of supplemental natural prey (primarily Cladocera) to experimental enclosures resulted in an order of magnitude increase in prey availability, and a significant increase in fat content and feeding rate of confined H. ovatus. Adults of this species do not appear to be food limited during the breeding season, and extraordinarily high densities of adults seem to be necessary to produce intrinsic food shortage. These results suggest that feeding links between H. ovatus an its principal prey do not have major effects on population dynamics under typical field conditions, and call into question the assumption that closely coupled predator-prey interactions are the sole explanation for observed food-web patterns.