Wild orchid tuber collection in Iran: a wake-up call for conservation

Wild orchids are traditionally harvested as Salep and used in traditional medicine and ice-cream production in Iran. Recently however, illegal harvest of wild orchids for export appears to have grown. This study aimed to: (1) determine the diversity of harvested wild orchid species and their collection sites in Iran; and (2) study the current harvest status and trade chain and volume to estimate the total orchid plant extraction from natural populations. Field surveys of collectors and market surveys of traders were conducted to establish the diversity of collected species, to identify harvest hotspots, and to document harvesting and trade volumes. Sixteen species and subspecies from 7 genera of Orchidaceae are collected for their tubers. Based on estimates from the 2013 April to June harvest season more than 24.5 tons of fresh tubers were collected from three districts in Golestan province alone. It is estimated that this amount of tuber requires the lethal destructive harvesting of 5.5 –6.1 million orchids, with a market value of 320,000 USD. In the Tehran Bazar Salep trade during May–July 2013 was 1.9 tons of dried tubers, with estimated retail value of 310,000 USD. Current orchid collection practices in Iran, which have soared in recent years due to international demand, do not seem sustainable as all tubers are collected destructively. To preserve orchid populations, in the longterm, establishment of specific Orchid Conservation Areas and introduction of sustainable production practices, could alleviate harvesting pressure. In the midterm, development of a DNA barcoding-based molecular identification system could help to monitor and control illegal trade. In the near term, effective implementation of collection bans in excessively harvested areas and strengthening of current regulations are necessary to avoid the catastrophic effects of harvesting on orchid populations, as has been observed in Turkey.     

The trade in medicinal and aromatic plants from central Nepal to Northern India

This paper describes the collection and trade of dry medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) from Gorkha District in central Nepal to Delhi in northern India. It is based on two years’ field work in Nepal and India. Substantial amounts of MAPs are available and accessible in the northern and middle parts of the district; currently 35 species are traded and further 13 species traded elsewhere are found in the district. Approximately 3700 individuals are engaged in commercial MAP collection; in the northern and middle parts of the district 25–100% of households in a given village participate in the collection. The average daily income is competitive with other income generating activities and commercial MAP collection constitutes from 15–35% of poor households ’ annual income (households with less than 300 US$ annual income). Commercial MAP collection is generally not important in the southern part of the district. Almost all species are harvested in the wild. The harvested and dried MAPs move southward from the forests and alpine pastures in Nepal to the main Indian markets on the Gangetic plain. Marketing margin analysis of the six main products traded shows that collectors’ net margins average 46.6% of the Delhi wholesale price; the overall average net margin for traders is only 3.0% and for Terai wholesalers 31.5%. The main potentials and pitfalls in connection to improving the trade for the collectors are briefly discussed. There are indications that the commercial MAP collection in central Nepal is not unsustainable.     

Climate change‐induced distributional change of medicinal and aromatic plants in the Nepal Himalaya

Medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) contribute to human well‐being via health and economic benefits. Nepal has recorded 2331 species of MAPs, of which around 300 species are currently under trade. Wild harvested MAPs in Nepal are under increasing pressure from overexploitation for trade and the effects of climate change and development. Despite some localized studies to examine the impact of climate change on MAPs, a consolidated understanding is lacking on how the distribution of major traded species of MAPs will change with future climate change. This study identifies the potential distribution of 29 species of MAPs in Nepal under current and future climate using an ensemble modeling and hotspot approach. Future climate change will reduce climatically suitable areas of two‐third of the studied species and decrease climatically suitable hotspots across elevation, physiography, ecoregions, federal states, and protected areas in Nepal. Reduction in climatically suitable areas for MAPs might have serious consequences for the livelihood of people that depend on the collection and trade of MAPs as well as Nepal''s national economy. Therefore, it is imperative to consider the threats that future climate change may have on distribution of MAPs while designing protected areas and devising environmental conservation and climate adaptation policies.     

Commercial and ethnic use of lichens in India

The diversity of Indian lichen flora has undergone a considerable decline in the last five decades. Among the various anthropogenic activities, overexploitation and selective removal of economically important lichens have become major threats to the lichen flora of the country. Commercial samples of lichens collected from different states of India were studied for their source and commercial use. Among samples offered for sale, 38 different lichen species were identified. The western Himalayas proved to be the main area for lichen collection, while some lichen species also come from the central and Western Ghats. Local traders coordinate the lichen collection and then sell the material to traders in the foothills, and from there it is processed and distributed to other parts of the country and abroad. Because lichens belonging to the families Parmeliaceae and Physciaceae are the ones most exploited commercially, they are recommended for inclusion in the CITES list.     

Economic Importance of the Medicinal Plant Trade in Sierra Leone1

Economic Importance of the Medicinal Plant Trade in Sierra Leone. This study identified, quantified, and evaluated the economic importance of the medicinal plant trade in Sierra Leone so that recommendations for conservation could be made. We carried out a quantitative market survey. We interviewed 120 vendors in three major cities and all vendors in two towns near a national park. Apart from the semistructured interviews, specimen samples were collected and identified, prices noted, and sales units measured. More than 40 species were traded in urban markets, nine species being the most frequently traded in all three cities. Only two plants were traded in the towns: Xylopia aethiopica (Dunal) A.Rich.and Garcinia kola Heckel. Most plants were traded in the form of dried bark or leaves. It was estimated that at least USD 64,000 are being annually traded in informal markets in major cities, the nine species most frequently traded contributing most of the retail value. Little information was found on import/export figures. Results from this study indicate that the trade of certain medicinal plants could be promoted as an alternative livelihood strategy for edge communities of protected areas. However, more information is needed on harvesting techniques, source and abundance of the species traded.     

Collection and trade of wild-harvested orchids in Nepal

Background

Wild orchids are illegally harvested and traded in Nepal for use in local traditional medicine, horticulture, and international trade. This study aims to: 1) identify the diversity of species of wild orchids in trade in Nepal; 2) study the chain of commercialization from collector to client and/or export; 3) map traditional knowledge and medicinal use of orchids; and 4) integrate the collected data to propose a more sustainable approach to orchid conservation in Nepal.

Methods

Trade, species diversity, and traditional use of wild-harvested orchids were documented during field surveys of markets and through interviews. Trade volumes and approximate income were estimated based on surveys and current market prices. Orchid material samples were identified to species level using a combination of morphology and DNA barcoding.

Results

Orchid trade is a long tradition, and illegal export to China, India and Hong Kong is rife. Estimates show that 9.4 tons of wild orchids were illegally traded from the study sites during 2008/2009. A total of 60 species of wild orchids were reported to be used in traditional medicinal practices to cure at least 38 different ailments, including energizers, aphrodisiacs and treatments of burnt skin, fractured or dislocated bones, headaches, fever and wounds. DNA barcoding successfully identified orchid material to species level that remained sterile after culturing.

Conclusions

Collection of wild orchids was found to be widespread in Nepal, but illegal trade is threatening many species in the wild. Establishment of small-scale sustainable orchid breeding enterprises could be a valuable alternative for the production of medicinal orchids for local communities. Critically endangered species should be placed on CITES Appendix I to provide extra protection to those species. DNA barcoding is an effective method for species identification and monitoring of illegal cross-border trade.

     

Exploited for pets: the harvest and trade of amphibians and reptiles from Indonesian New Guinea

Over-exploitation of wildlife is a significant threat to global biodiversity, but addressing the sustainability of harvests can be difficult when trade is conducted illegally. The wildlife trade is driven chiefly by consumer demand, largely in developed nations (but increasingly in Asia), and more species are traded to meet international demand for pets than for any other purpose. We surveyed traders of amphibians and reptiles in the Indonesian provinces of Maluku, West Papua and Papua between September 2010 and April 2011. We recorded 5,370 individuals representing 52 species collected solely for the pet trade. At least 44?% were either fully protected or had not been allocated a harvest quota, making their harvest and trade illegal. Approximately half were listed within the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora. Trade operates via a complex chain, with hunters receiving little income compared to middlemen and exporters. Examination of Indonesian harvest quotas for amphibians and reptiles suggests limited knowledge of species distributions, with quotas often set for species in provinces where they do not occur. Illegal trade is due, partly, to an inadequate understanding of the species being traded and is facilitated by poor monitoring and enforcement at key trade hubs. As a first step to combatting illegal trade, and to better understand the effects of harvest on wild populations, we recommend the need for increased monitoring and enforcement, improving the knowledge base of species traded and educating consumers about the effects their demand for pets has on these species.     

Medicinal Plant Trade in Sierra Leone: Threats and Opportunities for Conservation

This study used a quantitative market survey to examine the ecological importance of the medicinal plant trade in Sierra Leone and the existing trading systems, so that it could be determined (1) if trade has a negative impact on the species traded, and/or (2) if trade could be used to support conservation projects. We interviewed vendors in three major cities and two towns and carried out focus–group discussions among collectors at forest edge communities. In the markets, specimen samples were collected and identified. In several forests, observations were made on harvesting techniques and relative abundance. More than 40 species are traded in urban markets, nine of which are the most frequently traded. Some plants are transported great distances to reach the urban markets, especially Xylopia aethiopica (Dunal) A.Rich. and Garcinia kola Heckel. Certain species might not be sustainably harvested depending on the collector practices (e.g., ring debarking, tree felling), and this might threaten these species, especially Piper guineense Schumach. & Thonn. However, results also suggest that the trade of some species could be promoted as an alternative livelihood strategy for edge communities of forest reserves. In this latter case, special attention should be paid to sustainable harvesting techniques.     

Unsustainable collection and unfair trade? Uncovering and assessing assumptions regarding Central Himalayan medicinal plant conservation

The trade in medicinal plants for herbal remedies is large and probably increasing. The trade has attracted the attention of scientists and development planners interested in the impact on plant populations and the potential to improve rural livelihoods through community based management and conservation. This has resulted in a large number of publications and development activities, ranging from small NGO projects to new government policies. Through a review of 119 references from Nepal, 4 common assumptions regarding the medicinal plant collection and trade have been identified: I. The commercial medicinal plant resource base is becoming ever more degraded as a consequence of collection; II. The medicinal plants are an open-access resource; III. Cultivation can contribute to conservation of commercially collected medicinal plant species; and IV. Medicinal plant harvesters are cheated by middlemen. The frequency of the assumptions is documented, their empirical support is evaluated, and the consequences of their presence for conservation and rural livelihoods are discussed. It is concluded that the empirical backing for the assumptions is weak, and that some reviewed references use logically flawed argumentation. It is argued that the assumptions are leading to misguided conservation efforts, and an inclusive approach to conservation of commercial central Himalayan medicinal plant species is briefly outlined. Electronic Supplementary Material Supplementary material is available in the online version of this article at and is accessible for authorized users.     

Der Krienser Hochwald (Kanton Luzern): Ein wertvoller Lebensraum für zahlreiche, in der Schweiz gef?hrdete Flechtenarten

Dietrich M., Bürgi-Meyer K., Bergamini A., Scheidegger C. and Stofer S. 2008. The Forest of Kriens (canton of Lucerne): A valuable habitat for many threatened lichens of Switzerland. Bot. Helv. 118: 149 – 164. In Switzerland almost half of the epiphytic lichen species are listed as threatened. Lichens, especially epiphytic species, contribute significantly to the biological diversity of forest ecosystems. Many of them are important indicator species and thus used for designing successful conservation strategies in woodlands. This study documents the importance of the Forest of Kriens near the city of Lucerne (Central Switzerland) as a habitat for epiphytic lichens. A rich flora comprising 182 species was recorded, thirty seven species being threatened in Switzerland and four being protected at the national level. Chaenotheca sphaerocephala, Micarea xanthonica and Psilolechia clavulifera are reported for the first time from Switzerland. More than sixty recorded lichen species are indicators of environmental continuity in woodlands. The sub-oceanic-montane climate at this north-facing slope at the border of the Northern Pre-Alps and the extensive, close to nature forest management, which guarantees environmental continuity, facilitate a high species diversity among epiphytic lichens. Thus, the Forest of Kriens is an important refuge for endangered species whence they might invade lichen-impoverished areas of the Central Plateau. For several epiphytic lichen species it represents the only known locality in the canton of Lucerne and one of few in Switzerland. Eingereicht am 21. Juni 2008, Angenommen am 24. September 2008 Redaktion: A. Leuchtmann     

Topographic and forest-stand variables determining epiphytic lichen diversity in the primeval beech forest in the Ukrainian Carpathians

The Uholka-Shyrokyi Luh area of the Carpathian Biosphere Reserve is considered the largest and the most valuable primeval beech forest in Europe for biodiversity conservation. To study the impact of different topographic and forest-stand variables on epiphytic lichen diversity a total of 294 systematically distributed sampling plots were surveyed and 198 epiphytic lichen species recorded in this forest landscape, which has an uneven-aged structure. The obtained data were analysed using a non-metric multidimensional ordination and a generalized linear model. The epiphytic lichen species density at the plot level was mainly influenced by altitude and forest-stand variables. These variables are related to both the light availability i.e. canopy closure, and the habitat diversity, i.e. the developmental stage of the forest stands and the mean stem diameter. We found that lichen species density on plots with a relatively open canopy was significantly higher than on plots with a fairly loose or closed canopy structure. The late developmental stage of forest stands, which is characterized by a large number of old trees with rough and creviced bark, had a strong positive effect on lichen species density. In the Uholka-Shyrokyi Luh primeval forest the mean stem diameter of beech trees significantly correlated with lichen species density per plot. Similar trends in the species diversity of nationally red-listed lichens were revealed. Epiphytic lichens with a high conservation value nationally and internationally were found to be rather abundant in the Uholka-Shyrokyi Luh area, which shows its international importance for the conservation of forest-bound lichens.     

西藏地衣物种多样性的海拔梯度分析

根据西藏地衣分类和区系的文献资料,对西藏地衣物种多样性的海拔梯度进行了分析。267个分类群按照生长型或者基物被分为六组。每一组地衣的物种丰度随海拔增加呈现单峰曲线形式的变化。多数组物种丰度的峰值出现在海拔3400~3900m之间,对应于山地寒温带针叶林带的上半部分,比尼泊尔对应类群出现极值的海拔要高。此植物带谱内复杂的生态系统可能是物种多样性高的主要原因。壳状地衣物种丰度的峰值出现在5100~5400m区间则可能是因为该区内高大的树木的消失以及具有充裕的阳光。西藏的地衣物种多样性远低于尼泊尔,两地共有的物种数量很少。对西藏地衣物种多样性的调查不充分应当是其主要原因,因此今后中国地衣学工作者应当加强西藏地衣多样性的研究。     

Epiphytic lichens as biomonitors of airborne heavy metal pollution

The research aims to assess the performance of the lichen Parmotrema reticulatum as an air pollution biomonitor of four heavy metals, namely, chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), lead (Pb) and zinc (Zn). Four contrasting land use sites within the greater Auckland region of New Zealand are used. One site is located within the relatively clean air shed of conservation land, the others within residential, commercial, and industrial areas, characterised by increasingly polluted air sheds, respectively. Three groups of lichens are monitored over a two-year period using active and passive biomonitoring methods to assess ‘on-thallus’ and ‘in-thallus’ concentrations of heavy metals. Seasonal transplants are used to quantify heavy metals accumulated by the lichen during each season. Long-term transplants are used to measure how fast lichens accumulate heavy metals and to better understand how and when heavy metals within the lichen thallus achieve equilibrium with air pollutant concentrations over time. The results show that the lichens continuously accumulates pollutants from the air until equilibrium is reached, thus transplanted lichens are useful for monitoring air pollution concentrations over time. Since pollutant concentration in the transplanted lichen at equilibrium stabilises, at this point the lichen ceases to be useful for monitoring temporal trends in air pollution, but may useful for spatial air pollution monitoring. The industrial location has the highest total accumulation for all four heavy metals, followed by the commercial and residential locations, respectively. Overall, the results show that the lichen P. reticulatum may be successfully used to monitor spatial and temporal pollution patterns caused by even very low concentrations of Cr, Cu, Pb and Zn.     

Lichen diversity and composition in Araucaria forests and tree monocultures in southern Brazil

Tree plantations for commercial use have been replacing native ecosystems all over the world. We investigated how forest conversion to plantations of exotic and native tree species may influence lichen diversity and composition in a southern Brazilian landscape. The lichen community from the National Forest of São Francisco de Paula was studied using three stands of each of the four vegetation types: native Araucaria forest and plantations of Araucaria, Pine and Eucalyptus trees. All plantation stands were surrounded by native Araucaria forest, were of smaller size and were allowed to endure longer than commercially managed plantations. Lichen species and their cover abundance were recorded on tree trunks from 30 to 150 cm above soil level in ten host-trees that were randomly selected in each replication. Seventy-eight lichen species, from 18 genera and 9 families, were registered. Conversion of native forest to plantations of exotic tree species altered species composition by reducing the occurrence of shade tolerant lichens. Plantations of Araucaria angustifolia sustained the highest lichen diversity measured, because this is an excellent host species. These results suggest that a greater diversity of lichens can be preserved in the landscape, if plantations of the exotic Pinus and Eucalyptus genera are replaced by plantations of this native species.     

西藏地衣物种多样性的海拔梯度分析

根据西藏地衣分类和区系的文献资料,对西藏地衣物种多样性的海拔梯度进行了分析。267个分类群按照生长型或者基物被分为六组。每一组地衣的物种丰度随海拔增加呈现单峰曲线形式的变化。多数组物种丰度的峰值出现在海拔3400~3900m之间,对应于山地寒温带针叶林带的上半部分,比尼泊尔对应类群出现极值的海拔要高。此植物带谱内复杂的生态系统可能是物种多样性高的主要原因。壳状地衣物种丰度的峰值出现在5100~5400m区间则可能是因为该区内高大的树木的消失以及具有充裕的阳光。西藏的地衣物种多样性远低于尼泊尔,两地共有的物种数量很少。对西藏地衣物种多样性的调查不充分应当是其主要原因,因此今后中国地衣学工作者应当加强西藏地衣多样性的研究。     

Conservation strategies for lichens: insights from population biology

To design effective conservation strategies, the population biology of the target organism needs to be well understood. In lichens, the population dynamics of the symbiotic organism is closely tied to the dynamics of its substrate. Here, we review the population biology of selected lichens, highlighting the link between landscape and lichen population dynamics. We suggest strategies to efficiently protect lichen species and develop priorities for species conservation approaches.     

Patterns and drivers of lichen species composition in a NW-European lowland deciduous woodland complex

We surveyed lichens in an extensive area of lowland deciduous oak and beech dominated forest under wood pasture management within the New Forest National Park, southern England. This provided the basis for an investigation of factors affecting the species density and composition of epiphytic lichen communities. Fifteen 1 hectare plots were established in the same sites as a parallel invertebrate survey, of which nine were in old growth forest and six in oak plantations of between c. 150 and 300 years old. In each plot 12 trees were identified for sampling and lichens were sampled on four aspects of each trunk. Results at the plot level showed that species density was significantly higher in the old growth woodland plots from those in plantations. Plot age had a significant effect on species on oak but this was not significant for lichen communities on beech. The species density of lichens associated with Trentepohliaceae photobionts on oaks showed a linear positive relationship with increasing plot age while the species density of species with other coccal green Chlorophyta decreased with age of the plot. A major part of the lichenised fungi with Trentepohliaceae photobionts includes indicator and notable species used in conservation evaluation and this component is most affected by fragmentation and isolation of forest sites. The results emphasise the importance of long term connectivity and ecological continuity in this extensive mosaic of lowland deciduous forest.     

Analysis of the marine ornamental fish trade at Ceará State, northeast Brazil

Brazil is one of the leading exporters of ornamental fishes, mostly freshwater; however, monitoring of the trade is nearly non-existent in the country. This paper provides an initial assessment of a new venture, the marine aquarium fish trade at Ceará State, northeast Brazil, aiming to document the species traded, to provide preliminary estimates of numbers of specimens traded, and to identify priorities in data collection and monitoring. A total of 143 species and 199 304 fishes were traded. From the total, 109 species were native and represented 84% of the fishes traded. Thirty-four exotic species figured on the permits and amounted to nearly 16% of the exports; however, most of them consist of misidentified native species. Nearly 90% of the fish trade was directed to the international market. Official figures represent an underestimation of the total number of captured specimens.     

Conservation and the cricket culture in China

Several species of Tettigoniidae and Grylloidea are collected and traded as singing or fighting insects in China. There is anecdotal evidence that this trade is causing a reduction in the ranges and populations of some species. However, before any conservation status can be assigned to any species reliably, it will be necessary to reconcile the long-established traditional classification system of singing and fighting insects with scientific classification, determine the ranges and monitor the populations of selected species of commonly traded species, and initiate an educational programme for invertebrate conservation using these crickets as flagship taxa.     

Antioxidant activity of polar lichens from King George Island (Antarctica)

Antioxidant agents prevent reactive oxygen species, which can cause degenerative diseases. Natural antioxidants are preferred over many synthetic antioxidants, which can be toxic, for therapeutic applications. Five lichen species were collected from King George Island, Antarctica. Antioxidant activities as assessed by DPPH (1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl) free radical and ABTS^•+ [2,2’-azinobis-(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonate)] radical scavenging capacities were determined and compared with those of commercial standards BHA (butylated hydroxyanisole) and trolox [(±)-6-hydroxy-2,5,7,8-tetramethylchromane-2-carboxylic acid]. The results indicated that two lichens exhibited comparatively high antioxidant activities with the remaining three exhibiting less activity. The antioxidant activity was concentration-dependent. When compared, the antioxidant activity of crude extracts from polar lichens to previously published data for tropical and temperate lichen species, we concluded that lichens of Antarctic origin may be the potent sources of strong antioxidant agents. Such species should be explored as novel sources of effective antioxidant metabolites.