Identifying Mozambique's most critical areas for plant conservation: An evaluation of protected areas and Important Plant Areas

Successful protected area networks must represent biodiversity across taxonomic groups. However, too often plant species are overlooked in conservation planning, and the resulting protected areas may, as a result, fail to encompass the most important sites for plant diversity. The Mozambique Tropical Important Plant Areas project sought to promote the conservation of Mozambique's flora through the identification of Important Plant Areas (IPAs). Here, we use the Weighted Endemism including Global Endangerment (WEGE) index to identify the richest areas for rare and endemic plants in Mozambique and subsequently evaluate how well represented these hotspots are within the current protected area and IPA networks. We also examine the congruence between IPA and protected areas to identify opportunities for strengthening the conservation of plants in Mozambique. We found that high WEGE scores, representing areas rich in endemic/near-endemic and threatened species, predict the presence of IPAs in Mozambique, but do not predict the presence of protected areas. We also find that there is limited overlap between IPAs and protected areas in Mozambique. We demonstrate how IPAs could be an important tool for ensuring priority sites for plant diversity are included within protected area network expansions, particularly following the adoption of the “30 by 30” target agreed within the post-2020 Convention on Biological Diversity framework, with great potential for this method to be replicated elsewhere in the global tropics.     

Use of insect rarity for biotope prioritisation: the tenebrionid beetles of the Central Apennines (Italy)

Insect conservation has been traditionally based mainly on the identification of priority biotopes. One of the most commonly used criteria for biotope prioritisation is the occurrence of priority species, hence the need for measures of species vulnerability. In this paper a two-step protocol for biotope prioritisation is proposed. Firstly, insect species vulnerability is estimated from rarity measures that can be easily derived from basic data. Then, these values of vulnerability are used to rank biotopes. The method was applied here to the tenebrionid beetles of the Central Apennines, a montane area of high conservation concern for South Europe. Their use in this paper is an example of the use of data hidden in museum collections for analyses dealing with traditionally overlooked insect groups. Most of conservation decisions for Mediterranean mountains are biased towards certain vertebrates. Although current management practices in the preserves of the study area are generally consistent with the conservation of tenebrionids (especially woodland protection, which is essential for arboreal species), results provided in this study stress the importance of preserving also open biotopes, which are crucial for many taxa, including several endemic forms. Moreover, there is indication that preservation of such kind of biotopes would be important also for vertebrates. The approach for biotope prioritisation based on species rarity was here applied to a single animal taxon, but it can be easily extended to other insect groups, in order to obtain a more general view of the relative importance of different biotope types for Apennine conservation.     

Towards a common set of criteria and indicators to identify forest restoration priorities: An expert panel-based approach

Ecological restoration of forest ecosystems is increasingly being implemented in many parts of the world, as a response to widespread forest loss and degradation. In common with other conservation management interventions, restoration efforts should be directed towards areas where the maximum benefits are likely to be achieved. Such prioritisation requires the development of appropriate criteria and indicators (C&I), an issue poorly addressed by previous research. In particular, there is need for C&I that are operational, suitable for spatial analysis and mapping and applicable to a broad range of contexts. This investigation aimed to verify whether this might be achieved through the elicitation of experts’ opinion, when considering biodiversity conservation as the main objective of restoration. A Delphi process was performed, aimed at defining the key ecological criteria and a broad set of indicators. 389 criteria and 669 related indicators were provided in total and grouped into clusters relating to individual criteria. A total of 20 criteria referred to the need for restoration and 18 to its feasibility. In the second round of the Delphi process, 8 definitive criteria were identified along with some 90 related indicators. Finally, a face-to-face meeting was conducted to show how ready-to-use C&I can be obtained for application to a specific context starting from the Delphi's results. The study highlights the potential value of combining the Delphi process and face-to-face meetings for identifying practically applicable C&I for planning ecological restoration. However, the diversity of views identified within a single group of stakeholders suggests that the development of a generally applicable set of C&I for forest restoration will be difficult to achieve in practice.     

Floristic composition of Jandaf Mountain as biodiversity hotspot area in southwestern Saudi Arabia

Arid environments around the world are characterized by lower plant diversity. However, some specific locations have relatively high species richness and have significant importance in terms of vegetation structure and plant diversity. Jabal Al-Jandaf is located in an arid area within the eastern side of mountainous region in the southwest of Saudi Arabia. It consists of valleys, lower plain and upper plain habitats with unique and diverse vegetation. These habitats range from 1000 m above sea level near the Tarj valley to 1910 m at the summit. In this study, we conducted a first survey of the floristic diversity at Jandaf Mountain. Furthermore, we applied the criteria of the Important Plant Area (IPA) and the High Conservation Value (HCV) approaches to assess whether the plant community at Jandaf Mountain qualifies as a significant conservation area. We found that the study area has great plant diversity with plant composition varying among the different habitats (e.g., valleys, upper and lower elevations) within the study area. We recorded 118 species from 97 genera belonging to 42 families, including endemic (e.g. Aloe pseudorubroviolacea), near-endemic (e.g. Monolluma quadrangular), and endangered species (e.g. Dracaena serrulata, Combretum molle, and Moringa peregrine). The plant diversity at Jandaf Mountain achieves the criteria outlined in the IPA and HCV approaches. Therefore, we conclude that Jandaf Mountain has a unique vegetation structure, and the area qualifies for conservation as a high value area for biodiversity and conservation of global significance.     

Vascular plant and bryophytes species representation in the protected areas network on the national scale

The complexity of nature conservation raises questions about biodiversity protection at the level of species as well as their spatial distribution between differently designated nature conservation areas. We have concentrated on comparison of the existing protected areas and recently established conservation initiative areas—Important Plant Areas. We have estimated how well these areas support the protection of two plant groups—bryophytes and vascular plants. We sought answers to the following questions: (a) are there any trends in the distribution of protected bryophyte and vascular plant species in the protected areas network, and (b) does the Important Plant Areas network promote better protection of bryophyte species compared with the existing protected areas network. Our results demonstrated that bryophytes need special care in nature conservation decisions to reach the reasonable conservation target. Important Plant Areas that were targeted to vascular plants have less importance in preserving bryophyte diversity than already existing conservation areas system. Conservation programs like IBA, IPA etc. have their specific tool and outcome to add conservation values to the existing protected areas system.     

Plant diversity and priority conservation areas of Northwestern Yunnan,China

The Global Plant Conservation Strategy of the Convention on Biological Diversity calls for “protection of 50% of the most important areas for plant diversity.” All global biodiversity analyses have identified the mountains of northwestern Yunnan as a conservation priority for plant diversity. The challenge we were presented with was how to transform this sweeping global recognition into regional geographic priorities and measurable conservation action. This challenge is especially acute in Yunnan where there are no readily accessible data on the distribution and status of plant diversity, yet great conservation urgency due to the rapid pace of economic development. We used endangered and endemic species to represent plant diversity as a whole due to time and financial constraints. To identify conservation priorities, we relied on experts’ knowledge, supplemented with a rapidly assembled plant diversity data base, rapid field assessments to fill knowledge gaps, and analyses of the spatial patterns of richness and habitat relationships. Ninety-eight endangered species and 703 endemic species occur in the project area. Experts identified nine Plant Diversity Conservation Areas for northwestern Yunnan, including eight specific geographies and one priority habitat. We found that the current nature reserve system is serving an important role in plant diversity protection, even though many of the reserves were not specifically designated for plant diversity considerations. This project provided a means for scientific experts to directly contribute to conservation decision-making by government and Non-Government Organizations, and essential information for the plant conservation in Northwestern Yunnan.     

Development of a scoring method to identify important areas of plant diversity in Ireland

In the face of accelerating biodiversity loss it is more important than ever to identify important areas of biodiversity and target limited resources for conservation. We developed a method to identify areas of important plant diversity using known species’ distributions and evaluations of the species importance. We collated distribution records of vascular plants and developed a scoring method of spatial prioritisation to assign conservation value to the island of Ireland at the hectad scale (10 km × 10 km) and at the tetrad scale (2 km × 2 km) for two counties where sufficient data were available. Each plant species was assigned a species conservation value based on both its conservation status and distribution in Ireland. For each cell, the species conservation values within the cell were summed, thereby differentiating between areas of high and low conservation value across the landscape. Areas with high conservation value represent the most important areas for plant conservation.The protected area cover and the number of species present in these important areas were also examined by first defining threshold values using two different criteria. Species representation was high in the important areas; the identified important areas of plant diversity maintained high representation of species of conservation concern and achieved high species representation overall, requiring a low number of sites (<8%) to do so. The coincidence of protected areas and important areas for plant diversity was found to be low and while some important areas of plant diversity might benefit from the general protection afforded by these areas, our research highlights the need for conservation outside of protected areas.     

Integrating Economic Costs and Biological Traits into Global Conservation Priorities for Carnivores

Background

Prioritization schemes usually highlight species-rich areas, where many species are at imminent risk of extinction. To be ecologically relevant these schemes should also include species biological traits into area-setting methods. Furthermore, in a world of limited funds for conservation, conservation action is constrained by land acquisition costs. Hence, including economic costs into conservation priorities can substantially improve their conservation cost-effectiveness.

Methodology/Principal Findings

We examined four global conservation scenarios for carnivores based on the joint mapping of economic costs and species biological traits. These scenarios identify the most cost-effective priority sets of ecoregions, indicating best investment opportunities for safeguarding every carnivore species, and also establish priority sets that can maximize species representation in areas harboring highly vulnerable species. We compared these results with a scenario that minimizes the total number of ecoregions required for conserving all species, irrespective of other factors. We found that cost-effective conservation investments should focus on 41 ecoregions highlighted in the scenario that consider simultaneously both ecoregion vulnerability and economic costs of land acquisition. Ecoregions included in priority sets under these criteria should yield best returns of investments since they harbor species with high extinction risk and have lower mean land cost.

Conclusions/Significance

Our study highlights ecoregions of particular importance for the conservation of the world''s carnivores defining global conservation priorities in analyses that encompass socioeconomic and life-history factors. We consider the identification of a comprehensive priority-set of areas as a first step towards an in-situ biodiversity maintenance strategy.     

Sustainable biodiversity conservation in the Niger Delta: a practical approach to conservation site selection

The rich biodiversity repository of the Niger Delta region of Nigeria is under severe threat from diverse sources such as deforestation, inadequate farming practices, invasive alien species, urbanization and oil and gas exploration and development activities. This biodiversity “hot spot” is the second most sensitive environment in Africa. The over 70 Protected Areas (PAs) here have lost substantial portions of their area which translates to loss of biodiversity. The need to select representative sites within each of the ecological zones of the region for effective and sustainable biodiversity conservation is, therefore, essential. Vital site criteria that have ecological, socio-economic and cultural dimensions were selected and assessed through a combination of relevant scientific information, indigenous traditional knowledge and participatory rural appraisal (PRA) to yield Key Biodiversity Areas (KBAs).They are significantly different from the site selection criteria and principles used in the UK and to a large extent adopt the critical factors that underscore biodiversity conservation in a largely primary production based economy such as in much of the developing world. The three sites selected for biodiversity conservation through this process yielded not only community buy-in but also participatory action and ownership, which are critical for the sustainability of the biodiversity conservation efforts. Shell Nigeria and World Wide Fund (WWF) representatives are already concluding plans to commence effective conservation projects in the selected sites. This approach is hereby advocated for consideration and adoption for the preservation of the remaining stock of the unique biodiversity in developing countries.     

The pitfall-trap of species conservation priority setting

To elucidate the factors underlying species conservation priority setting, we analysed the relationships among species’ structural complexity, scientific attention, threatened species listing, and conservation investments at different organisational levels, including global, European, national, and sub-national. Although the literature often highlights the need to consider criteria other than extinction risk status, our results show that an excessive use of Red lists still persists in the setting of conservation priorities. We found that organismal complexity, available scientific information, and species listing combine together to create a positive feed-back loop, in which more complex organisms have a larger proportion of threatened species in the Red lists and legal lists. This bias promotes research that is devoted to understanding conservation problems as well as more funds invested to solve them. We propose that a sort of pitfall-trap is currently constraining the species conservation priority setting, in which few species, mainly threatened and better-known species, tend to receive most of the funds and policy attention. To counteract this pitfall-trap, we highlight the need to increase scientific effort on lower taxa and expand Red lists to assess lesser-known taxonomic groups as well as the need to use other criteria for species conservation prioritisation.     

Plant functional types and climate at the global scale

Abstract. Globally applicable sets of terrestrial plant functional types (PFTs) have been identified as a major need in the development of dynamic global vegetation models for use with global atmospheric models. Global sets of PFTs should represent the world's most important plant types; characterize them through their functional behavior; and provide complete, geographically representative coverage of the world's land areas. Three main schools of thought on PFTs have emerged: (1) a physiological focus on internal function, especially at the level of basic metabolism; (2) an ecological focus on function in relation to plant form and environmental conditions; and (3) a geophysical focus on how plant functions affect the adjacent atmosphere. A structural approach based on pheno-physiognomy permits ready identification of relatively familiar, recognizable plant types. Many of the criteria cited by other approaches also are intimately related to structure and its seasonal changes. An earlier global system of structural-functional PFTs and their climatic relations has been improved, including addition of less well-known plant types, and is briefly described. A more strictly ‘functional’ approach is proposed, in which major aspects of plant function, initially metabolism and water balance, are used to classify functional types and suggest how these are constrained by climate. Such functional considerations, however, are closely linked to structural manifestations - but also require other functional criteria for more completely functional classifications. A recent global model of potential natural vegetation types suggested ca. 15 major plant types as necessary to cover the world's main terrestrial vegetation patterns. These essential types correspond well with a first-cut set of structural types implied by metabolic considerations.     

Overlooked Mountain Rock Pools in Deserts Are Critical Local Hotspots of Biodiversity

BackgroundThe world is undergoing exceptional biodiversity loss. Most conservation efforts target biodiversity hotspots at large scales. Such approach overlooks small-sized local hotspots, which may be rich in endemic and highly threatened species. We explore the importance of mountain rock pools (gueltas) as local biodiversity hotspots in the Sahara-Sahel. Specifically, we considered how many vertebrates (total and endemics) use gueltas, what factors predict species richness, and which gueltas are of most priority for conservation. We expected to provide management recommendations, improve local biodiversity conservation, and simultaneously contribute with a framework for future enhancement of local communities’ economy. The identification of local hotspots of biodiversity is important for revaluating global conservation priorities.Conclusion/SignificanceGueltas are crucial for local biodiversity conservation and human activities. They require urgent management plans in Mauritania’s mountains. They could provide refugia under climate change being important for long-term conservation of Sahara-Sahel biodiversity. Given their disproportional importance in relation to their size, they are local hotspots of biodiversity deserving global attention.     

Core concepts of spatial prioritisation in systematic conservation planning

Systematic conservation planning (SCP) is a field of conservation biology concerned with delivering on‐the‐ground actions that achieve conservation goals. It describes a set of operational models that cover both design and implementation of conservation, with a strong focus on mobilising the collective action typically required to implement conservation. SCP, as it was originally described, was composed of six different stages: collection of data, identification of conservation goals, evaluation of the existing protected area network, design of expansions, implementation of conservation action, and long‐term maintenance of biodiversity in the network. Since then, the operational model has been expanded into several different variants. Conservation actions applied inside SCP include establishment and expansion of reserve networks and allocation of habitat restoration and management. Within the broader context of SCP, there is a fundamental biogeographic‐economic analysis frequently called spatial conservation prioritisation or conservation assessment, which is used for identifying where important areas for biodiversity are and how conservation goals might be achieved efficiently. Here, we review the usage and meaning of the 12 biogeographic‐economic core concepts of SCP: adequacy, complementarity, comprehensiveness, effectiveness, efficiency, flexibility, irreplaceability, replacement cost, representation, representativeness, threat, and vulnerability. Some of the concepts have clear definitions whereas others may have alternative and possibly conflicting definitions. With a comprehensive literature review literature, we elucidate the historical backgrounds of these concepts, the first definitions and usages, alternative later definitions, key applications, and prior reviews. This review reduces linguistic uncertainty in the application of SCP. Since SCP is a global activity with a multitude of different stakeholders involved, it is vital that those involved can speak the same language. Through these concepts, this review serves as a source of information about the historical development of SCP. It provides a comprehensive review for anyone wishing to understand the key concepts of spatial prioritisation within SCP.     

Nature conservation: priority-setting needs a global change

The limited resources available for the conservation of biodiversity and ecosystem services call for prioritisation schemes. For instance, in the process of systematic conservation planning site selection is partly determined by efficiency gains. In this paper we present an alternative method for global spatial priority-setting based on ecological indicators, combined with social and economic conditions that influence the effectiveness of conservation, and measures for the long-term persistence of biodiversity. In the analysis the assumption made is that nature conservation should prioritize the effective maintenance of functional ecosystems that do not only provide the most ecosystem services but are also more likely to have a high adaptive capacity towards unavoidable environmental change. Furthermore, the effectiveness and permanence of conservation projects is tied to certain socioeconomic and political conditions that, as we suggest, should be evaluated as part of the conservation priority-setting process. We propose three new priority categories: eco-functionally wise (EcoWise), socioeconomically wise (SocioWise) and proactive allocation of conservation resources considering future climate change (ClimateWise) expressed as indices based on 16 different indicators. Analysing the combined effects of these three categories (EcoSocioClimateWise), in a spatially explicit way highlights the importance of tropical, subtropical but also some temperate and boreal forest areas all of which are characterized by high values of vegetation density, tree height and carbon storage. Our recommendations for policy makers prompt a shift in conservation planning towards advocating the use of ecological and socioeconomic indicators in combination with proxies for the vulnerability to future climate change impacts.     

Microbial diversity: the importance of exploration and conservation

Microbial diversity is fundamental to maintenance and conservation of global genetic resources. As extreme environments are explored, the richness of microbial diversity is increasingly evident. Measures must be taken to estimate, record, and conserve microbial diversity, not only to sustain human health but also to enrich the human condition globally through wise use and conservation of genetic resources of the microbial world. Received 24 April 1996/ Accepted in revised form 07 January 1997     

Advances in understanding the fundamental aspects required for successful cryopreservation of Australian flora

Australia is host to an amazing diversity of species, many of which require conservation efforts. In vitro culture provides a tool for not only conserving these threatened species but allows for their propagation from limited starting material. Cryopreservation provides the greatest long-term storage option for in vitro cultures and as a conservation tool for other germplasm. However, while cryopreservation has proven capable of delivering viable long-term storage with some plant taxa, the process of deriving protocols is still largely an incremental process. The key to faster and more intuitive optimising of cryopreservation protocols lies with continuing to develop a better understanding of key factors, including issues with plant physiology (such as genetic stability, the composition of the proteome and metabolome, cell membrane characteristics, and antioxidant defences) and how the stresses imposed by cryopreservation (such as the excision damage, desiccation, cryoprotective agent toxicity, ice crystal damage, and cooling to cryogenic temperatures) interact and contribute to the cryocapability of a species. This review focuses on the advances that have been made towards understanding cryogenic stress and how this has led to improved cryopreservation protocols, in the context of cryopreserving Australian flora.     

Factors determining distributions of tree species and plant functional types

Plant functional types have been identified by the International Geosphere Biosphere Program as functionally similar basic plant types, especially trees, as needed for global ecological modeling. Based to some extent on an earlier set of pheno-physiognomically defined plant types, a Global Biome Model was produced but has not satisfied all the desired functional criteria posed by IGBP physiologists and modelers. This paper asks two questions: what are the main environmental factors which limit terrestrial plant types, especially tree types; and how many types of potential vegetation are needed to cover the world's terrestrial vegetation patterns? Based on the main environmental factors recognized, a model of world potential dominant vegetation types was produced and used to estimate the minimal number of vegetation types needed. The resulting set of 40 potential dominant vegetation types may serve as an initial basis for a structural-functionally based set of world plant functional types.     

The botanical education extinction and the fall of plant awareness

Civilization is dependent upon plants for survival. Plants permeate our every moment and our relationship with them will dictate how we will manage the threats of climate change and ecological collapse defining the Anthropocene. Yet, despite the significance of plants and the critical role they have played in shaping ecosystems, civilizations, and human cultures, many people are now disconnected from the botanical world. Students are presented with little plant content, particularly identification, compared with animal content. Consequently, we are producing few plant scientists and educating fewer scientists about plants. This drives a self‐accelerating cycle we term the extinction of botanical education. A process of knowledge erosion, that in this instance contributes to our separation from the natural world, makes us blind to the biodiversity crisis and inhibits our ability to restore it. We argue that neglecting the importance of plants within education threatens the foundations of industries and professions that rely on this knowledge. Furthermore, this extinction of botanical education creates an existential threat: Without the skills to fully comprehend the scale of and solutions to human‐induced global change, how do we as a society combat it? We present key research agendas that will enable us to reverse the extinction of botanical education and highlight the critical role plants play on the global stage.

Civilization is dependent upon plants for survival and our relationship with them will dictate how we will manage the global impact of humanity which defines the Anthropocene. We document and define a self‐perpetuating educational cycle that we term the extinction of botanical education and its impact on the science of botany and potential ramifications for society to reverse and stabilise human included global change.     

The fundamental role of ecological feedback mechanisms for the adaptive management of seagrass ecosystems – a review

Seagrass meadows are vital ecosystems in coastal zones worldwide, but are also under global threat. One of the major hurdles restricting the success of seagrass conservation and restoration is our limited understanding of ecological feedback mechanisms. In these ecosystems, multiple, self‐reinforcing feedbacks can undermine conservation efforts by masking environmental impacts until the decline is precipitous, or alternatively they can inhibit seagrass recovery in spite of restoration efforts. However, no clear framework yet exists for identifying or dealing with feedbacks to improve the management of seagrass ecosystems. Here we review the causes and consequences of multiple feedbacks between seagrass and biotic and/or abiotic processes. We demonstrate how feedbacks have the potential to impose or reinforce regimes of either seagrass dominance or unvegetated substrate, and how the strength and importance of these feedbacks vary across environmental gradients. Although a myriad of feedbacks have now been identified, the co‐occurrence and likely interaction among feedbacks has largely been overlooked to date due to difficulties in analysis and detection. Here we take a fundamental step forward by modelling the interactions among two distinct above‐ and belowground feedbacks to demonstrate that interacting feedbacks are likely to be important for ecosystem resilience. On this basis, we propose a five‐step adaptive management plan to address feedback dynamics for effective conservation and restoration strategies. The management plan provides guidance to aid in the identification and prioritisation of likely feedbacks in different seagrass ecosystems.