Drinking desalinated seawater for a long time induces anomalies in the development of new-born albino rats

The present study aimed to elucidate the abnormalities in the development of rat brains, livers, kidney and behaviours after drinking desalinated seawater prenatally. Three types of drinking water were employed as an experimental probe (bottled water, filtered desalinated seawater and tap desalinated seawater) to investigate neurobehavioral and morphological changes in the development of pup rats. Female rats from each group were administered water from their birth until gestation and lactation. The 1st and 2nd generation pups were divided into three groups: Group C, mothers and pups administered with bottled drinking water (the control group); Group F, mothers and pups administered with filtered drinking water; Group T, mothers and pups administered with unfiltered desalinated seawater (tap water). Morphological changes (CNS aberration) and neurobehavioral changes were studied. The aberrations recorded in the tissues (brain, liver, kidney and spinal cord) of rats from groups T and F may be due to oxidative stress in these tissues such as reduced glutathione, lipid peroxidation, peroxidase and super oxide dismutase. In conclusion, drinking desalinated seawater for a long time may cause teratogenic effects in the development of New-born rats.     

Knowledge,Attitudes and Practice of Desalinated Water among Professionals in Health and Water Departments in Shengsi,China: A Qualitative Study

Desalination has been considered as an essential way to solve water stress all over the world. Most of previous studies focused on its environmental impacts, energy consumption and desalination technologies rather than human health. However, the safety of desalinated water remains unclear. This study was undertaken to investigate the knowledge, attitude and practice (KAP) of the residents in an island county in eastern China to desalinated water. Seventeen people working in medical and water industries were recruited, and focus group discussion and in-depth interview were conducted among them. Our results showed that the majority of people interviewed knew the definition and local supply pattern of desalinated water, while some of them showed some concern about the safety and nutrition of desalinated water. Current drinking water standard has no specific item for desalination, so we strongly suggest issuing a standard for desalinated water.     

Diversity and dynamics of bacterial species in a biofilm at the end of the Seoul water distribution system

To investigate changes in the bacterial species and hygienic safety of the biofilm at the end of the drinking water distribution system in Seoul (Korea), denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) and DNA sequencing were used to analyse the bacterial population in the biofilm of a semi-pilot galvanized iron pipe model. The presence of sequences from aerobic Sphingomonas sp., anaerobic Rhodobacter sp., and unculturable bacteria indicated that these organisms coexisted after 1 day of model operation, demonstrating the ease of biofilm formation on galvanized iron pipes in the end region of the water distribution system studied. Sequences similar to those of unculturable bacteria, E. coli, and anaerobic bacteria were detected during the course of succession on the biofilm. More complicated band patterns were observed after 70 days of operation. PCR-DGGE illustrated changes in the biofilm during succession as well as the possibilities of anaerobic conditions and faecal contamination of the drinking water system. PCR-DGGE and culture-dependent fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) analysis showed different patterns for the same samples (Lee & Kim 2003); however, PCR-DGGE showed less diversity than did FAME analysis. This study compared the culture-dependent FAME and culture-independent PCR-DGGE methods directly, and their use in promoting the hygienic safety of drinking water.     

Oral Bioaccessibility and Leaching: Tests for Soil Risk Assessment

A set of test methods for estimating the risk for human health (oral bioaccessibility tests) and groundwater (leaching tests) was applied to contaminated soils from three sites with different sources of contamination. The bioaccessible soil concentrations of the contaminants cadmium, lead, nickel, benzo(a)pyrene and dibenz(a,h)anthracene were considerably lower than the total concentrations. The leached concentrations of the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, cadmium and nickel were below the EU drinking water and Danish groundwater criteria, whereas the leached lead concentrations were below the drinking water criteria but above the groundwater criteria. Based upon the test results, a risk assessment of the soils with respect to human health (oral exposure) and groundwater was established that reflected a reduced availability and mobility of PAH and heavy metals in the soils.     

Biochemical investigation of the functional state of various subcellular structures as a criterion for the assessment of unfavourable effects of environmental factors

Theoretical basis and results of biochemical studies of the enzymic systems of different localization in the cell--both bound with subcellular structures lysosomes--and dissolved in the cytosol--during experimental exposure to some environmental factors (carbon tetrachloride, carbon disulphide and others) are presented. It has been suggested to employ the assessment of the functional state of biomembranes of cellular organelles (e. g. lysosomes) and especially the effect of solubilization of membrane-bound enzymes and labilization of lysosomal membranes as one of the biochemical criteria of hygienic assessment of toxic effects and of some forms of delayed effects of environmental contaminants. Simultaneous biochemical investigation of enzyme-markers of subcellular organelles in the tissues of various organs and in biological fluids (blood, urine, seminal and amniotic fluids) permits us to elaborate and recommend for use in hygienic practice new biochemical criteria of unfavourable biological effects of chemical factors of the environment.     

Potential for biofilm development in drinking water distribution systems

Regrowth of micro-organisms in drinking water distribution systems is caused by the utilisation of biodegradable compounds which are either present in treated water or originate from materials in contact with drinking water. In the Netherlands most drinking water is distributed without disinfectant residual and regrowth is limited by achieving biostable drinking water. A combination of methods is used to assess the biostability of drinking water. These methods are: (1) determination of the concentration of easily assimilable organic carbon (AOC); and (2) assessment of the biofilm formation rate (BFR). Assimilated organic carbon concentrations in drinking water in the Netherlands range from a few μg C/l in slow sand filtrates and in ground water supplies to values of ～ 50 μg C/l in supplies using ozonation in water treatment. Biofilm formation rate values were found to range from < 1 pg ATP/cm(2)/d in supplies using anaerobic ground water as the source. Increase of heterotrophic plate counts is limited at AOC values below 10 μg C/l. At BFR values below 10 pg ATP/cm(2)/d the risk of exceeding the guideline value for aeromonads (90 percentile < 200 c.f.u./100 ml) is less than 20%. Calculations based on the decrease of the AOC concentration observed in distributions systems confirm that very low concentrations of AOC can cause considerable biofilm formation on the pipe wall. The methods for assessing the biostability of drinking water combine with the assessment of the Biofilm Formation Potential of materials in contact with drinking water, thus providing a framework, the Unified Biofilm Approach, for evaluating the biostability of drinking water and materials.     

Prevalence, quantification and typing of adenoviruses detected in river and treated drinking water in South Africa

AIMS: Human adenoviruses (HAds), of which there are 51 serotypes, are associated with gastrointestinal, respiratory, urinary tract and eye infections. The importance of water in the transmission of HAds and the potential health risks constituted by HAds in these environments are widely recognized. Adenoviruses have not previously been quantified in river and treated drinking water samples. In this study, HAds in river water and treated drinking water sources in South Africa were detected, quantified and typed. METHODS AND RESULTS: Adenoviruses were recovered from the water samples using a glass wool adsorption-elution method followed by polyethylene glycol/NaCl precipitation for secondary concentration. The sensitivity and specificity of two nested PCR methods were compared for detection of HAds in the water samples. Over a 1-year period (June 2002 to July 2003), HAds were detected in 5.32% (10/188) of the treated drinking water and 22.22% (10/45) of river water samples using the conventional nested PCR method. The HAds detected in the water samples were quantified using a real-time PCR method. The original treated drinking water and river water samples had an estimate of less than one copy per litre of HAd DNA present. The hexon-PCR products used for typing HAds were directly sequenced or cloned into plasmids before sequencing. In treated drinking water samples, species D HAds predominated. In addition, adenovirus serotypes 2, 40 and 41 were each detected in three different treated drinking water samples. Most (70%) of the HAds detected in river water samples analysed were enteric HAds (serotypes 40 and 41). One HAd serotype 2 and two species D HAds were detected in the river water. CONCLUSIONS: Adenoviruses detected in river and treated drinking water samples were successfully quantified and typed. The detection of HAds in drinking water supplies treated and disinfected by internationally recommended methods, and which conform to quality limits for indicator bacteria, warrants an investigation of the risk of infection constituted by these viruses. The risk of infection may have implications for the management of drinking water quality. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: This study is unique as it is the first report on the quantification and typing of HAds in treated drinking water and river water. This baseline data is necessary for the meaningful assessment of the potential risk of infection constituted by these viruses.     

Restoration of hydro-ecological conditions in Carpathian forested mountain fens

The research was designed to assess benefits of passive restoration, consisting of blocking from drainage ditches and in effect raise the groundwater level, its influence on properties of soil, water, species of plants and mesofauna in the fen Caltho-Alnetum community. The research was carried out in Outer Flysh Carpathians, the area of the Babiogórski National Park (Poland) in 2011–2014. It was established that the degraded communities showed positive reaction to an attempt to restore the original groundwater level. The increase in the groundwater level changed chemical properties of soil and water of the community such as: pH, sorption properties and the ionic composition of groundwater. Changes in habitat conditions resulted in different species composition of soil mesofauna and plants growing in the restorative community.     

A Microbiological Test Method to Determine the Cleanability of Filter Media in Solid‐Liquid‐Separation Applications

One of the major properties in the design and development of filter media for the food and drug industry is their cleanability. They should be designed according to hygienic criteria thereby decreasing residuals and reducing cleaning time and costs. A reproducible test method is necessary to determine or validate the degree of cleanability of filter media and to indicate areas of poor hygienic design. This work focused on the development of such a filter test and provides information about impurity, whether it occurs or not, and its local resolution. The growth of a microorganism, which is introduced as impurity, is used for the detection of residues which grow to the surface of the sample and offer a 2‐dimensional analysis. With this approach, different kinds of filter media can be compared with each other regarding their cleanability.     

A Qualitative Ecosystem Assessment for Different Shrublands in Western Europe under Impact of Climate Change

Climate change may affect the dynamics of ecosystems and the goods and services they provide. To investigate the consequences of warming and drought for the goods and services provided by different shrublands in various western European countries, an assessment was carried out using results of field manipulation experiments of the CLIMOOR and VULCAN projects. Goods and services of these shrublands mainly encompass biodiversity, various forms of recreation, conservation of culturally and historically important landscapes, groundwater as a drinking water source, and carbon sequestration. Warming of dry lowland heathlands in The Netherlands and Denmark increases nutrient availability, which may lead to grass encroachment reducing biodiversity and decreasing recreational values. Drought may reduce the chances of grass encroachment but increase the chances of disturbances to heather vegetation. Similarly, warming increases and drought decreases the chances of nitrate pollution to the groundwater, which is often used as a drinking water source. Warming of the upland heathland in the UK increases its productivity, which might enable higher grazing densities leading to improved agricultural production. However, complex interactions between heather and invading species may be affected. Furthermore, nitrate production is increased, which may lead to groundwater pollution. Under drought conditions, productivity decreases and agricultural production capacity drops. In the Mediterranean shrubland in Spain, both warming and drought led to a shift in the species composition of seedlings and recruitment, which might lead to a change in the plant community and a reduction in biodiversity. In the drought treatment, a decreasing soil carbon content may lead to a loss of biodiversity, recreational possibilities, and an increased threat of wildfires and erosion.     

Interaction effects between sender and receiver processes in indirect transmission of Campylobacter jejuni between broilers

ABSTRACT: BACKGROUND: Infectious diseases in plants, animals and humans are often transmitted indirectly between hosts (or between groups of hosts), i.e. via some route through the environment instead of via direct contacts between these hosts. Here we study indirect transmission experimentally, using transmission of Campylobacter jejuni (C. jejuni) between spatially separated broilers as a model system. We distinguish three stages in the process of indirect transmission; (1) an infectious "sender" excretes the agent, after which (2) the agent is transported via some route to a susceptible "receiver", and subsequently (3) the receiver becomes colonised by the agent. The role of the sender and receiver side (stage 1 and stage 3) was studied here by using acidification of the drinking water as a modulation mechanism. RESULTS: In the experiment one control group and three treatment groups were monitored for the presence of C. jejuni by taking daily cloacal swabs. The three treatments consisted of acidification of the drinking water of the inoculated animals (the senders), acidification of the drinking water of the susceptible animals (the receivers) or acidification of the drinking water of both inoculated and susceptible animals. In the control group 12 animals got colonised out of a possible 40, in each treatment groups 3 animals out of a possible 40 were found colonised with C. jejuni. CONCLUSIONS: The results of the experiments show a significant decrease in transmission rate (beta) between the control group and treatments group (p < 0.01 for all groups) but not between different treatments; there is a significant negative interaction effect when both the sender and the receiver group receive acidified drinking water (p = 0.01). This negative interaction effect could be due to selection of bacteria already at the sender side thereby diminishing the effect of acidification at the receiver side.     

Norwegian water quality criteria — ecosystems approach

General water quality criteria for Norwegian Waters were developed by the State Pollution Control Authority in the earch 1980s. The need for further refinement of these criteria became apparent in the mid-1980s. New water quality criteria were developed in conjunction with the development of a system for assessment of water uses. Two fundamental principles are outlined for determining the classification of water quality in Norway:

1. The classification for polluted water. The basis for this system is the natural water quality without any form of influence from man. It is the influence of pollution on the water quality, or the difference between the natural water quality and the water quality today that is classified.
2. The system for assessment of water quality for various uses is based both on the existing water quality and some physical and practical properties of the environment. The water quality criteria are specific for various uses.

Comprehensive planning in Norway should include physical planning and areal planning of rivers, lakes, and coastal areas. Water use planning will become an indtegral part of comprehensive master planning. This paper describes the system for assessment of water resources uses. Explaining the principles of the system is the main feature of this paper.     

Microbial Load of Drinking Water Reservoir Tributaries during Extreme Rainfall and Runoff

Hygienic and microbiological examinations of watercourses are usually not carried out during heavy rainfall and runoff events. After rainfall or snowmelt, there are often massive increases in turbidity in flooding creeks in mountain ranges, which are frequently interpreted as an indication of microbial contamination. The aim of this study was to quantify the microbial loads of watercourses during such runoff events and to compare these loads with loads occurring during regular conditions. In a 14-month monitoring period we investigated the microbial loads of three tributaries of different drinking water reservoirs. A total of 99 water samples were taken under different runoff conditions and analyzed to determine physical, chemical, bacterial, and parasitic parameters. Thirty-two water samples were considered event samples during nine measuring series. The criteria for events, based on duration and intensity of precipitation, water depth gauge measurements, and dynamics, had been fixed before the investigation for each creek individually. Of the physical and chemical parameters examined, only the turbidity, pH, and nitrate values differed clearly from the values obtained for regular samples. Most of the bacteriological parameters investigated (colony, Escherichia coli, coliform, fecal streptococcal, and Clostridium perfringens counts) increased considerably during extreme runoff events. If relevant sources of parasitic contamination occurred in catchment areas, the concentrations of Giardia and Cryptosporidium rose significantly during events. The results show that substantial shares of the total microbial loads in watercourses and in drinking water reservoirs result from rainfall and extreme runoff events. Consequently, regular samples are considered inadequate for representing the microbial contamination of watercourse systems. The procedures for raw water surveillance in the context of multiple-barrier protection and risk assessment ought to include sampling during extreme runoff situations.     

Microbial load of drinking water reservoir tributaries during extreme rainfall and runoff

Hygienic and microbiological examinations of watercourses are usually not carried out during heavy rainfall and runoff events. After rainfall or snowmelt, there are often massive increases in turbidity in flooding creeks in mountain ranges, which are frequently interpreted as an indication of microbial contamination. The aim of this study was to quantify the microbial loads of watercourses during such runoff events and to compare these loads with loads occurring during regular conditions. In a 14-month monitoring period we investigated the microbial loads of three tributaries of different drinking water reservoirs. A total of 99 water samples were taken under different runoff conditions and analyzed to determine physical, chemical, bacterial, and parasitic parameters. Thirty-two water samples were considered event samples during nine measuring series. The criteria for events, based on duration and intensity of precipitation, water depth gauge measurements, and dynamics, had been fixed before the investigation for each creek individually. Of the physical and chemical parameters examined, only the turbidity, pH, and nitrate values differed clearly from the values obtained for regular samples. Most of the bacteriological parameters investigated (colony, Escherichia coli, coliform, fecal streptococcal, and Clostridium perfringens counts) increased considerably during extreme runoff events. If relevant sources of parasitic contamination occurred in catchment areas, the concentrations of Giardia and Cryptosporidium rose significantly during events. The results show that substantial shares of the total microbial loads in watercourses and in drinking water reservoirs result from rainfall and extreme runoff events. Consequently, regular samples are considered inadequate for representing the microbial contamination of watercourse systems. The procedures for raw water surveillance in the context of multiple-barrier protection and risk assessment ought to include sampling during extreme runoff situations.     

黑龙江省农村饮用水水质健康风险评价

本文以黑龙江省农村饮用水为研究对象,调研分析了该地区农村饮用水水质状况和水质问题,筛查出三种可能造成人体健康风险的典型污染物:砷,氟化物,硝酸盐。在此基础上,选用了USEPA推荐的水质风险健康评价模型对三种污染进行了健康风险评价,评价结果表明砷的健康风险值大于最大可接受限值10-(6a-1),存在较大人体健康风险,氟化物和亚硝酸盐人体健康风险较小。此外,根据水质健康风险评价结果,对保障黑龙江省农村饮用水实质安全提出了初步解决措施。