Multiform wave organization of neurophysiological processes-universal “language” of human brain in realization of informational-controlling functions

The paper summarizes literature data and results of many-year Laboratory studies disclosing principles of the multiform spatial-time organization of differing by rates of neurophysiologic brain processes as the universal “language” of its informational-controlling functions. There are considered current concepts of electrogenesis and physiological significance of ratios of gradual changes of biopotentials and impulse activity of neurons considered in studies of cerebral mechanisms of regulation of normal and pathological states, and organization of human psychic activity. Put forward and argumented are concepts of the probability principle of hierarchical organization of differing by rates of neurophysiologic processes brain zones, structures, and areas in formation of the brain systems participating in provision of the higher psychic functions and states. It is proposed to discuss the concept of the brain as the “swimming,” many-contour, neurodynamic informational-controlling suprasystem with universal, hierarchically organized neurodynamic structures—”functional organs” by A.A. Ukhtomskii (1978), of which formation provides large informational brain capacity and a wide specter of adaptive possibilities of the human organism.     

Chain processes and their biophysical applications: Part I. General theory

A mathematical theory applicable to the biological effects of radiations as chain processes is developed. The theory may be interpreted substantially as a “hit theory” involving the concepts of “sensitive volume” or “target area”. The variability of the sensitivity of the organism to the radiation and its capacity of recovery between single hits is taken into account. It is shown that in a continuous irradiation of a biological aggregate in which the effect of each single hit cannot be observed, recovery and variation of sensitivity are formally equivalent to each other so that a discrimination between these two phenomena is possible only by discontinuous irradiation or by using different radiation intensities. Methods for the calculation of the “number of hits” and for the determination of the kinetics of the processes from “survival curves” or similar experimental data are given. The relation between the recovery and the Bunsen-Roscoe law is discussed. The case in which the injury of the organism is dependent on the destruction of more than one “sensitive volume” is also considered.     

Evolutionary ontogenetic aspects of pathogenetics of chronic human diseases

This article is a review of scientific publications, in which issues of pathogenetics of multifactorial diseases (MFDs) are considered from the viewpoint of evolution and ontogeny. Concepts explaining significance of evolutionary processes in the formation of genetic architecture of human chronic diseases (“thrifty” genomes and phenotypes, “drifty genes,” decanalization) are analyzed. The roles of natural selection and genetic drift in the formation of hereditary diversity of genes for susceptibility to MFDs are considered. The modern concept of “disease ontogeny” (somatic mosaicism, loss of heterozygosity, paradominant inheritance, epigenetic variability) is discussed. It is demonstrated that the evolutionary and ontogenetic approaches to analysis of genimuc and other “-omic” data are essential for understanding the biology of diseases.     

Correlative formation of functions as one of mechanisms of functional evolution (by example of development in child’s ontogenesis of central maintenance of stereognosis and speech function)

The paper considers a possibility of correlative formation in ontogenesis of central mechanisms of stereognosis and speech function by example of comparison of changes in spatial organization of interregional interaction of various cortex areas in children of three age groups (5–6, 7–8, and 9–10 years) and in adults subjects during their performances of stereognostical, verbalmnestic, and motor manual activity (the tapping test). With age dynamics of children there was observed a significant increase in the degree of similarity of the spatial structure of interregional relations during periods of performance of stereognostical test with patterns of changes in the EEG distant relationships revealed at performance of verbal tasks. In turn, similarity of patterns of interregional EEG relationships characteristic of stereognostical tasks with the patterns revealed at periods of performance of the tapping test was not increased with age. On the whole, the obtained data allow believing that with increase of children’s age there rose the degree of topological similarity of the spatial structure of systemic interactions of the cortex zones, on which there were “supported” processes of realization of stereognostical and verbal functions. The progressing increase with children’s age of the degree of similarity of the distributive organization of neurophysiological mechanisms of central provision of the verbal and stereognostic functions can argue in favor of the concept of correlative formation of these higher psychical functions in postnatal ontogenesis. The obtained data show that the correlative interfunctional interactions promoting progressive development of cognitive functions in the child ontogenesis can be realized through the long association fibers and commissural pathways composing the morphofunctional longitudinal-transversal “skeleton” of neocortex in the close interaction with thalamo-cortical integrative systems.     

Typostrophism in Palaeozoic Ammonoids?

The anti-Darwinian “Typostrophe Theory” of O.H.Schindewolf can be put to the test by revisiting the ammonoid examples on which this macroevolutionary model was founded. It is shown that none of the three theoretical elements saltationism, internalism, and cyclism can be supported by empirical data obtained from ammonoid research. Putative saltations (“Typogenesis”) were feigned because of the lack of knowledge of intermediate forms. Internalistic and orthogenetic development (“Typostasis”) can only be favoured by neglecting possible functions of morphological characters. Preprogrammed extinction of “degenerated” clades (“Typolysis”) is unlikely when ruling out anthropocentric views regarding ammonoid morphology. In terms of evolution of Palaeozoic ammonoids, there is no basis for the preference of the “Typostrophe Theory” or some of its composing elements, including the “Type Concept” and “Proterogenesis”, over the Darwinian evolutionary model and the Modern Synthesis.      

Dimensional analysis in mathematical biology. II

The application of dimensional analysis in biology is further illustrated by functional equations composed of dimensionless numbers and dealing with renal physiology, lung physiology and plant leaf shape. Dimensional variables and dimensionless numbers are examined from the viewpoint of numerical invariant properties of a certain physical system. Utilization of the method for problems such as design of an artificial kidney is considered briefly. A tabulation of variables useful in biology is given, with suggestions for a number of new dimensional entities. A continuation of the list of dimensionless invariants from Part I (Bull. Math. Biophysics,23, 355–376, 1961) is provided and includes terms pertaining to general physiology, geometric growth, metabolism, ecological interactions, muscle kinetics and other areas. It is pointed out that use of dimensionless ratios (similarity criteria) makes possible a direct comparison of form or shape factors and relative growth ratios with a variety of physical ratios, through the use of functional equations containing only dimensionless entities. Organismal similarity during growth and development, and between genetically related species, may be analyzed in terms of “automodel” or “self-similar” systems governed by certain dimensionless invariants. Tables of biological variables and dimensionless groupings are included.     

Prolegomenon for a hypothesis on music as expression of an evolutionary early homeostatic feedback-mechanism. A biomusicological proposal.

Musical experience and creativity are regarded to be largely depending on cultural conditions and hence on higher cognitive functions. True as this may be, there are, however, numerous responses to music-the urge to make music taken into account-which derive from deeper levels of the human organism, namely from arousing alternatively moderating vegetative and limbic functions. Although the behavioral intensity and quality emanating from such evolutionary early nervous structures may be affected by cultural influence, they still seem to be essentially independent. Similar specific responses to acoustical and/or motor patterned stimuli are found among some other higher vertebrates which like humans are equipped with sophisticated mechanisms for hearing, sound production and locomotion, well tuned to each other. However, it is even today an open question whether these manifestations of auditive-phonatory-locomotor abilities just are analogues or if they share a common evolutionary background. The current discussion on this matter has accumulated data which apparently support the latter view pointing to that sexual selection would be the common force, first suggested by Charles Darwin (153). Other, and still more recent data in genetics and neuroscience, may be interpreted as hints at that the common origin would be a more elemental organismic feature, a metabolic-homeostatic variable which due to its evolutionary strength eventually created the platform for a radiation of adaptations concerning species-specific patterned sounds and locomotions with a broad spectrum of tasks, among them sexual selection. This line of reasoning is here, under reference to recent biological data, made the basis for a hypothetical model of music as an expression of an early homeostatic feedback mechanism. Accordingly, in music there is a central variable, a “heart” or a “core”, which is not to be found exclusively in music but appears globally as a releasing mechanism for basic endocrine, autonomous and elementally cognitive functions. It is of acoustical or motoric nature, or of a combination of these characters, and is performed in repetitive trains of impulses. It is further assumed that the target of its operations is mainly proteins with a regulatory effect on the cellular and synaptic states. The principal representatives for these proteins are growth factors, especially the NGF which originally was regarded as a growth stimulator within the peripheral and sympathetical systems but which eventually appeared to be also a synergetic modulator of neuro-endocrine-immuno-reactions, i.e. of the three central homeostatic systems (5, 80). One can speculate that this variable is functionally active at an elemental level such that it has escaped to be knocked out by forceful “higher” and evolutionary younger factors (49:13). This hypothesis — that music has its roots within and is a part of a globally occurring natural acoustical-motoric stimulus, manifested in a great variety of auditory and motoric behavior in humans and among some other higher vertebrates — implies that humankind has developed this stimulus into a category of acoustical structures which oscillate round an instable point of equilibrium. Exactly such structures, not stochastic but neither too predictable, affect the organism mainly on a sensory-vegetative level (59, 102, 137, 151). They are in addition perceptionally optimal in creating cortical space-temporal neural patterns with strong interhemispheric coherence (110, 130). According to this scenario, music did not originate from a human need of communication or as an aspect of sexual selection. It emerged from elemental processes within the individual organism with the aspiration to maintain his bodily and mental fitness, thus on a pre-social level. What was beneficial to the single individual in his fight for survival, was good also for the group and its survival. Starting from that platform music has evolved in symbiosis with dance and play within a large spectrum of social functions, where sexual selection and ritual and autonomously aesthetical tasks got a focal role that increased over time and always was accompanied by emotional events. Behind, the ticking in the deep structure of music of this in cultural-ethical terms totally value-neutral archaic mechanism goes on without pause, contributing to the maintenance of an optimal functional balance in body and mind of the individual, and the group as well.     

Biophysics of nerve excitation

Experimental studies testifying to the presence of an interrelation between the physiological functions of the organism and physical and chemical processes in nerves are discussed. Changes in some physical and chemical parameters observed both upon elicited rhythmic excitation of nerves and during the spontaneous rhythmic activity of neurons are analyzed. Upon rhythmic excitation, a complex of physical and chemical processes is triggered, and reversible structural and metabolic rearrangements at the subcellular and molecular levels occur that do not take place during the generation of a single action potential. Thus, only in conditions of rhythmic excitation of a nerve, it is possible to reveal those processes that provide excitation of nerves in the organism. The future possibilities of the investigations combining the biophysical and physiological approaches are substantiated. Characteristic changes in physicochemical parameters are observed in nerves during the generation of a series of action potentials of different frequency and duration (“frequency dependence”) under normal physiological conditions, as well as in extreme situations and in nerve pathology. The structural and metabolic rearrangements are directly related to the mode of rhythmic excitation and proceed both in the course of rhythmic excitation and after its termination. Shown also is participation of the basic components of the nervous trunk (axon, Schwann cell, myelin, subcellular organelles) in the realization of rhythmic excitation. In the coordination of all processes involved in rhythmic excitation, the main role is played by the systems of redistribution and transport of intercellular and intracellular calcium. The idea is put forward that myelin of nerve fibers is not only an insulator, but also an “intercellular depot” of calcium and participates in the redistribution of different ions. Thus, the rhythmic excitation is of great importance in the realization of some physiological functions, the adaptation to changing conditions, the liquidation of consequences of paralogical processes, the formation of mechanisms of “memory,” etc.     

The Origin of the Vertebrate Eye

In his considerations of “organs of extreme perfection,” Charles Darwin described the evidence that would be necessary to support the evolutionary origin of the eye, namely, demonstration of the existence of “numerous gradations” from the most primitive eye to the most perfect one, where each such tiny change had provided a survival advantage (however slight) to the organism possessing the subtly altered form. In this paper, we discuss evidence indicating that the vertebrate eye did indeed evolve through numerous subtle changes. The great majority of the gradual transitions that did occur have not been preserved to the present time, either in the fossil record or in extant species; yet clear evidence of their occurrence remains. We discuss the remarkable “eye” of the hagfish, which has features intermediate between a simple light detector and an image-forming camera-like eye and which may represent a step in the evolution of our eye that can now be studied by modern methods. We also describe the important clues to the evolutionary origin of the vertebrate eye that can be found by studying the embryological development of our own eye, by examining the molecular genetic record preserved in our own genes and in the genes of other vertebrates, and through consideration of the imperfections (or evolutionary “scars”) in the construction of our eye. Taking these findings together, it is possible to discuss in some detail how the vertebrate eye evolved.     

An analysis of the 2o and 10o field color-matching functions

The 2^o and 10^o field color-matching functions are independent: one specification is not a linear transformation of the other, even after correcting for macular pigment effects. Therefore, the “true” color-matching functions which directly describe the linear responses of the eye must be different for the two field sizes. This means that a given stimulus will, in general, have a different chromaticity depending upon the field size, regardless of the choice of any one colorimetric co-ordinate system for all field sizes. However, in spite of these chromaticity differences, a large uniform field usually appears nearly uniform. Such color uniformity implies that even though chromatic differences occur as a function of retinal position or field size, these differences are small. If this is the case, then the underling “true” color-matching functions determining the observed color-matching functions must be nearly, but not quite, identical. These differences vanish as identity between the sets of color-matching functions is approached. This property suggests a method of calculating the “true” color-matching functions. The “true” color-matching functions must approximate those obtained by minimizing the chromaticity differences between two independent sets of data. This can be done by assuming that the coefficients of transformation should be adjusted so as to produce as nearly identical chromaticities for spectrum stimuli as possible. In this paper, it is also assumed that the “true” color-matching functions have no negative values, as if they were based on actual absorption spectra. This article describes the calculation of the “true” 2^o and 10^o field color-matching functions satisfying these two conditions. For both field sizes, the maxima of the three functions are near 435, 540, and 585 mμ, after correcting for the filtering effects of the ocular media and macular pigment.     

Feedback in physiological systems: An application of feedback analysis and stochastic models to neurophysiology

In the human, the antagonistic, extensor-flexor system of the leg is an example of a common type of neurophysiological feedback system. After a brief introduction to the neuroanatomy and physiology of this feedback system, the paper formulates transfer functions from temporal response data available in the literature. A feedback stability analysis, based on the extension of Nyquist's stability criteria to multiple-loop systems and utilizing flow-graph techniques, demonstrates the stable behavior of the system. Expressions are given relating the sensitivity of the system to variations in muscle response and Golgi tendon organ (tension receptor) response. By considering the events taking place at synapses and end-plates during “isometric tension-small knee angle excursion” conditions as stationary stochastic processes, an external “noise” input to the system is given, whose spectrum is derived from the statistics of a shot-process representation of these events. The paper concludes with some correlations between the analytical results and clinical syndromes.     

Hematopoietic cell renewal systems: mechanisms of coping and failing after chronic exposure to ionizing radiation

On the occasion of the first international workshop on systems radiation biology we review the role of cell renewal systems in maintaining the integrity of the mammalian organism after irradiation. First, 11 radiation emergencies characterized by chronic or protracted exposure of the human beings to ionizing irradiation were “revisited”. The data provide evidence to suggest that at a daily exposure of about 10–100 mSv, humans are capable of coping with the excess cell loss for weeks or even many months without hematopoietic organ failure. Below 10 mSv/day, the organisms show some cellular or subcellular indicators of response. At dose rates above 100 mSv/day, a progressive shortening of the life span of the irradiated organism is observed. To elucidate the mechanisms relevant to tolerance or failure, the Megakaryocyte–thrombocyte cell renewal system was investigated. A biomathematical model of this system was developed to simulate the development of thrombocyte concentration as a function of time after onset of chronic radiation exposure. The hematological data were taken from experimental chronic irradiation studies with dogs at the Argonne National Laboratory, USA. The results of thrombocyte response patterns are compatible with the notion of an “excess cell loss” (compared to the steady-state) in all proliferative cell compartments, including the stem cell pool. The “excess cell loss” is a function of the daily irradiation dose rate. Once the stem cell pool is approaching an exhaustion level, a “turbulence region” is reached. Then it takes a very little additional stress for the system to fail. We conclude that in mammalian radiation biology (including radiation medicine), it is important to understand the physiology and pathophysiology of cell renewal systems in order to allow predicting the development of radiation induced lesions.     

Morphological interpretation of darwinism

The development of evolutionary theory requires the resolution of the problem of relationships between random and regular processes in historical development of biological systems. According to the theory of natural selection, ecological factors play a leading role in evolution. Variations are nondirectional, unpredictable, and provide chaotic diversity of variants, only some of which are potentially useful. However, based on random processes, new variants that are useful for organisms and remain adaptive significance in various ecological situations are infrequent. At the same time, morphology demonstrates certain evolutionary patterns. The morphological approach takes into account the role in evolution of structural features of organism and social systems and evolutionary significance of “constructive technologies,” which distinguish morphological interpretation of evolutionary processes. The constructive and evolutionary patterns revealed in biological systems provide the basis for morphological interpretation of the principle of natural selection: both natural and artificial selection is interaction between social systems (populations, ecosystems, biogeocoenoses) and organisms composing them.     

Art in global context: An evolutionary/functionalist perspective for the 21<Superscript>st</Superscript> century

Regarding the arts as something peopledo — as behaviors, rather than the residue or artifacts of behavior — makes possible a theoretical grounding about their nature and importance, an endeavor that current anthropology of art has largely abandoned. A reconsideration of the suspect and largely discarded terms “functionalism” and “evolutionism” is presented in light of current evolutionary thinking. It is suggested that a contemporary reformulation of these concepts, illustrated by the author's Darwinian or “adaptationist” perspective on art, supports aims and claims of current anthropology of art, and contributes new focus and direction to its endeavors.     

Colonial organization and intercellular communication in microorganisms

This review covers the modern concepts and recent data demonstrating the integrity and coherence of microbial populations (colonies, biofilms, etc.) as peculiar “superorganisms.” Special attention is given to such relevant phenomena as apoptosis, bacterial altruism, quorum effects, collective differentiation of microbial cells, and the formation of population-level structures such as an extracellular matrix. Emphasis is placed on the channels and agents of intercellular communication in microbial populations. The involvement of a large number of evolutionarily conserved communicational facilities and patterns of intercellular interactions is underscored. Much attention is also given to the role of colonial organization and intercellular communication in parasite/commensal/symbiont-multicellular host organism systems.     

“Force-Talk” in Evolutionary Explanation: Metaphors and Misconceptions

The notion of “pressure” as an evolutionary “force” that “causes” evolution is a pervasive linguistic feature of biology textbooks, journal articles, and student explanatory discourse. We investigated the consequences of using a textbook and curriculum that incorporate so-called force-talk. We examined the frequency with which biology majors spontaneously used notions of evolutionary “pressures” in their explanations, students’ definitions and explanations of what they meant when they used pressures, and the structure of explanatory models that incorporated evolutionary pressures and forces. We found that 12–20 percent of undergraduates spontaneously used “pressures” and/or “forces” as explanatory factors but significantly more often in trait gain scenarios than in trait loss scenarios. The majority of explanations using “force-talk” were characterized by faulty evolutionary reasoning. We discuss the conceptual similarity between faulty notions of evolutionary pressures and linguists’ force-dynamic models of everyday reasoning and ultimately question the appropriateness of force-talk in evolution education.     

The Everglades: North America’s subtropical wetland

The Everglades is the largest subtropical wetland in the United States. Because of its size, floral and faunal diversity, geological history and hydrological functions on the Florida landscape, the remaining Everglades are considered to be the crown jewel of U.S. wetlands. It is also called a “sentinel wetland” to test our society’s resolve for ecosystem restoration. Originally called Pa-hay-okee (“grassy lake”) by the American Indians, it was later popularized as the “river of grass” by Marjory Stoneman Douglas. This metaphor unfortunately has led to a simplistic view of the complexities of the Everglades ecosystem and how it functions on the landscape. Often incorrectly referred to as the “marsh” or “swamp,” the Everglades is a fen peatland or alkaline mire. These are important distinctions when one considers how different marshes and swamps are from peatlands in terms of their hydrologic controls, biogeochemistry, rate of peat development, plant and animal communities and-importantly-succession patterns. This paper provides a brief review of the geological processes that led to the development of the Everglades, compares historic and current hydrologic flow patterns, assesses nutrient conditions, presents information on vegetation communities and succession patterns, and provides a new peatland classification of the Everglades system, which may help in the development of a more appropriate restoration management framework.     

Functional evolution: origin and problems

In the article the history of comparative and evolutionary physiology since the early XIX is given. The most substantial methods of evolutionary physiology are described. In the mid-50ies Orbely put forward the suggestion concerning two tasks facing evolutionary physiology, namely the study of evolution of functions and functional evolution. In the present work attention is given to the principles underlying evolution of functions on different levels of physiological systems. The main aspects of functional evolution are discussed.     

From view cells and place cells to cognitive map learning: processing stages of the hippocampal system

 The goal of this paper is to propose a model of the hippocampal system that reconciles the presence of neurons that look like “place cells” with the implication of the hippocampus (Hs) in other cognitive tasks (e.g., complex conditioning acquisition and memory tasks). In the proposed model, “place cells” or “view cells” are learned in the perirhinal and entorhinal cortex. The role of the Hs is not fundamentally dedicated to navigation or map building, the Hs is used to learn, store, and predict transitions between multimodal states. This transition prediction mechanism could be important for novelty detection but, above all, it is crucial to merge planning and sensory–motor functions in a single and coherent system. A neural architecture embedding this model has been successfully tested on an autonomous robot, during navigation and planning in an open environment. Received: 28 June 1999 / Accepted in revised form: 26 April 2001