High-performance vision training improves batting statistics for University of Cincinnati baseball players

Purpose

Baseball requires an incredible amount of visual acuity and eye-hand coordination, especially for the batters. The learning objective of this work is to observe that traditional vision training as part of injury prevention or conditioning can be added to a team''s training schedule to improve some performance parameters such as batting and hitting.

Methods

All players for the 2010 to 2011 season underwent normal preseason physicals and baseline testing that is standard for the University of Cincinnati Athletics Department. Standard vision training exercises were implemented 6 weeks before the start of the season. Results are reported as compared to the 2009 to 2010 season. Pre season conditioning was followed by a maintenance program during the season of vision training.

Results

The University of Cincinnati team batting average increased from 0.251 in 2010 to 0.285 in 2011 and the slugging percentage increased by 0.033. The rest of the Big East''s slugging percentage fell over that same time frame 0.082. This produces a difference of 0.115 with 95% confidence interval (0.024, 0.206). As with the batting average, the change for University of Cincinnati is significantly different from the rest of the Big East (p = 0.02). Essentially all batting parameters improved by 10% or more. Similar differences were seen when restricting the analysis to games within the Big East conference.

Conclusion

Vision training can combine traditional and technological methodologies to train the athletes'' eyes and improve batting. Vision training as part of conditioning or injury prevention can be applied and may improve batting performance in college baseball players. High performance vision training can be instituted in the pre-season and maintained throughout the season to improve batting parameters.     

Comparison of player movement patterns between 1-day and test cricket

Physical demands of cricket presumably vary by both game format and performance level. Differences in player movement patterns between 2 game formats (1 day and multiday) and 2 levels of elite performance (state and international) were quantified with global positioning system technology. Five movement categories were established, and 15 movement pattern variables were reported. Data from state (n = 42, 200 files) and international (n = 12, 63 files) cricketers were scaled to hourly values to compare movement demands. Cricketers generally covered similar distances in both formats, except for state 1-day fielders who covered moderately greater distance (~0.7 km·h?1 more; 21 ± 8%; mean ± 90% confidence interval) than state multiday (first-class) fielders. State 1-day cricketers also covered small to moderately greater distances (running 41 ± 13%; striding 38 ± 16%; sprinting 39 ± 36%) in the faster movement patterns and consequently had moderately less recovery time (13-67%) between high-intensity efforts as first-class cricketers. Comparisons of movements between performance levels revealed similar total distances between state and international cricketers. However, Test fielders covered moderately greater (29-48%) distances at the higher-intensity movement patterns (running, striding, and sprinting) than first-class fielders. In summary, although movement patterns were broadly similar between formats and levels, it appears that one day cricket (compared with multiday games) and test matches (compared with state-level competition) require more higher-intensity running. Conditioning coaches should train state and international 1-day cricket players similarly, but should account for the higher physical demands of international multiday cricket.     

Upper body muscle strength and batting performance in cricket batsmen

The aim of this study was to determine if upper body muscle strength (as measured by the 1 repetition maximum bench press) was associated with cricket batting performance. Cricket batting performance was defined by the maximum hitting distance during a batting task and batting average and strike rate during 1-Day and Twenty/20 (T/20) matches. Eighteen, provincial level, elite cricket batsmen participated in the study. Upper body muscle strength was found to be positively correlated with maximum hitting distance (p = 0.0052). There were no significant correlations between upper body strength, batting average, and strike rate for both the 1-Day and T/20 matches. The results of this study have implications for coaches choosing a particular batting line-up. Batsmen who have stronger upper bodies could be favored to bat when a match situation requires them to hit powerful strokes resulting in boundaries. However, coaches cannot use upper body strength as a predictor of overall batting performance in 1-Day or T/20 matches.     

Physical profiling of international cricket players: an investigation between bowlers and batters

This study aimed to develop a physical profile of international cricketers, and investigate if positional differences exist between bowlers and batters. Nineteen, international male cricketers, eleven bowlers (age 24.1 ± 5.2 years; height 179.73 ± 5.27 cm; weight 73.64 ± 6.65 kg), and eight batters (age 22.9 ± 3.8 years; height 180.25 ± 5.57 cm; weight 77.01 ± 8.99 kg) participated in this study. The physical test battery included; power, speed, strength and aerobic fitness tests. Batters demonstrated significantly higher scores for the countermovement jump (p < 0.03; ES = -1.55) and squat jump (p < 0.03; ES = -0.98). Furthermore, batters showed non-significant but small ES for faster 0–5 m (ES = 0.40) and 0–10 m (ES = 0.35) sprint times, superior hand grip strength (ES = -0.20), and higher Yo-Yo intermittent recovery test scores (ES = -0.46). Bowlers showed non-significant but small ES for faster 5 km time trials (ES = -0.51), lower bodyweight (ES = -0.42) and lower body fat percentage (ES = -0.30). However, intra-positional (i.e., seam and spin bowlers) and individual differences amongst players were observed. The physical profiles presented in this study can be used by coaches responsible for the physical development of cricket players to compare their existing data with. Furthermore, it is recommended that practitioners account for individual physical fitness profiles in addition to team profiles, to effectively design and evaluate tailored programs, with the aim of improving both physical and cricket performance.     

Differences in the Head Movement During Baseball Batting between Skilled Players and Novices

ABSTRACT: Nakata, H, Miura, A, Yoshie, M, and Kudo, K. Differences in the head movement during baseball batting between skilled players and novices. J Strength Cond Res 26(10): 2632-2640, 2012-We investigated the pattern of head movement during baseball batting in 8 skilled players and 9 unskilled novices, using a high-speed video camera. The 2 directions of head movement were analyzed as an X-axis (from the home plate to the pitcher's plate) and Z-axis (vertical downward). On the X-axis, peak latency, peak value, the distance from the peak to the value at bat-ball impact, and data variability were compared between the 2 groups. On the Z-axis, peak latency, downward distance, and data variability were analyzed. Peak latency on the X-axis occurred significantly earlier in baseball players than in novices (p < 0.001), and the difference between the minimum peak and impact was significantly larger in the players (p < 0.05). The variability in peak latency on the X-axis was significantly larger in the novices (p < 0.05). The variability in peak value on the Z-axis was also significantly larger in the novices (p < 0.05). Our findings showed that the significant differences in head movement between the 2 groups should help baseball players, beginners, coaches, and strength and conditioning professionals to improve performance, be effectively applied to actual practice, and enhance coaching for batting.     

Electromyographic activity of lower limbs to stop baseball batting

We investigated the muscle activation pattern of the lower limbs for the stopping motion of baseball batting by recording surface electromyography (EMG) from 8 muscles, the left and right rectus femoris (RF), biceps femoris (BF), tibialis anterior (TA), and medial gastrocnemius (MG) muscles. First, muscle activities for 'Swing' and 'Stopping' trials were examined in 10 skilled baseball players and 10 unskilled novices. Second, the characteristics of EMG activities for 'Stopping' were compared between the 2 groups. The peak latencies of EMG were significantly shorter in 'Stopping' than in 'Swing' at the right-TA, left-BF, and left-MG between both groups. The peak amplitudes of EMG activity were significantly larger in 'Swing' than in 'Stopping' at the right-TA, left-BF, and left-MG in both groups. In addition, the peak amplitudes of EMG activity for 'Stopping' were significantly larger in the players than in novices at the right-RF and right-TA. The characteristics of EMG activity clearly differed between 'Swing' and 'Stopping,' and between baseball players and nonplayers, indicating that evaluating the EMG activity in batting enables the understanding of proficiency. Our findings should help players, novices, and coaches to optimize batting performance.     

Incidence of red-green color blindness in the Basque population

The incidence of red-green colour vision defects was studied in a sample of 392 Basque students (174 males and 218 females), using the Ishihara test cards (1987). The frequency of red-green colour blindness was 4.02 percent in the males and 0.46 percent in the females. The colour blindness frequencies found among males are within the range of other Spanish samples. Nevertheless they are lower than the values reported in other European populations.     

Prognostic value of visual evoked potentials in occipital blindness following basilar artery occlusion.

Three patients suffering from sudden occipital blindness following basilar artery occlusion underwent electroretinography and visual evoked potential (VEP) examinations. The VEPs performed early in those blind patients and repeated later seem to be of prognostic value. Responses of normal shape and amplitude after monocular and binocular stimulation were followed by complete recovery of vision. Unequal and subnormal VEPs obtained following monocular stimulation, and even smaller responses reached after binocular stimulation, accompanied permanent unilateral occipital damage resulting in homonymous hemianopsia. Lack of VEP was proved to be a preceding sign of permanent blindness.     

Sensitive period for a multimodal response in human visual motion area MT/MST

The middle temporal complex (MT/MST) is a brain region specialized for the perception of motion in the visual modality. However, this specialization is modified by visual experience: after long-standing blindness, MT/MST responds to sound. Recent evidence also suggests that the auditory response of MT/MST is selective for motion. The developmental time course of this plasticity is not known. To test for a sensitive period in MT/MST development, we used fMRI to compare MT/MST function in congenitally blind, late-blind, and sighted adults. MT/MST responded to sound in congenitally blind adults, but not in late-blind or sighted adults, and not in an individual who lost his vision between ages of 2 and 3 years. All blind adults had reduced functional connectivity between MT/MST and other visual regions. Functional connectivity was increased between MT/MST and lateral prefrontal areas in congenitally blind relative to sighted and late-blind adults. These data suggest that early blindness affects the function of feedback projections from prefrontal cortex to MT/MST. We conclude that there is a sensitive period for visual specialization in MT/MST. During typical development, early visual experience either maintains or creates a vision-dominated response. Once established, this response profile is not altered by long-standing blindness.     

Comparison of training and game demands of national level cricketers

Although the physiological demands of cricket match play are emerging, the demands of contemporary training practices have not been reported. The aim of this study was to quantify the physiological demands of selected cricket training activities and compare these to known match demands. Twenty-eight different training activities were monitored in national academy level cricketers (n = 42) using global positioning system units during a 14-week residential training program. The training activities were classified into 3 categories: conditioning sessions (n = 8), skill sessions (n = 9), and game simulations (n = 11). Conditioning sessions were further classified into high- (n = 4) and low- (n = 4) intensity drills. Time-motion measures included movement patterns (walk, jog, run, stride, and sprint distances), total distance covered, number of sprints, number of high-intensity efforts, maximum speed, and recovery time between high-intensity efforts. Inferential statistics were used to quantify magnitudes of difference between various training drills. Movement patterns were then compared to recently published game data (Twenty20, One-Day, and Multiday games) from the same sample group of cricketers. Conditioning drills were twice as long in duration as skill drills and twice as intense as both the skill and game simulation drills. Exercising heart rates were 9-26% and lactate levels up to 3.5 times higher in conditioning compared to other training drills. Conditioning drills matched or exceeded (up to 10 b·min?1; 5%) peak game heart rates. Conversely, skill and simulation drills replicated mean game heart rates for some, but not all positions. In conclusion, training replicates or exceeds cricket match demands in conditioning-type drills but not in simulation or skill-based drills. Modification of skill and simulation training drill practices will ensure closer replication of match and training demands.     

Color-Vision Mechanisms in the Peripheral Retinas of Normal and Dichromatic Observers

It is possible that so-called normal trichromatic vision occurs only between the central blue-blind fixation area and about 30° peripherally. Beyond about 30° vision has been alleged to become dichromatic (red-green blind), and beyond about 60°, monochromatic. Hence every form of color blindness may characterize various zones of the normal retina. We have studied mechanisms of peripheral color vision, mainly by measuring the spectral sensitivities of the blue-, green-, and red-sensitive systems, isolated by differential color adaptation. In normal observers the sensitivity of the blue-mechanism falls off about 2 log units by 80° out. The green- and red-sensitive systems decline only about 0.7 log unit over the same range. Protanopes, deuteranopes, and tritanopes exhibit comparable changes. We have not found any color mechanism present centrally to be wholly lost peripherally. Nor, for dichromats, have we found any mechanism missing centrally to be present peripherally. Whatever evidences of peripheral color blindness have been observed appear to involve other mechanisms than failure of receptors, probably including some fusion of neural pathways from receptors to centers.     

Development of a baseball-specific battery of tests and a testing protocol for college baseball players

In this study, the relationship between the physical fitness of college baseball players found from 6 field tests and a performance evaluation by coaches was investigated. The purpose was to ascertain whether the results would be similar to those obtained in a previous study. The subjects of the study were 43 college baseball players (mean age, 20.7 +/- 1.4 years; mean athletic career, 10.9 +/- 2.6 years). Referring to the previous study, the field tests of physical fitness were composed of 6 items: throwing distance, back strength, medicine ball throwing, standing long jump, T-test, and base running. For capabilities in batting, fielding, and running, the coach's evaluation was expressed by T scores. The results of the analysis indicated that those players with high evaluation scores had significantly better test results in comparison with those players who were rated low in the evaluation. Although the multiple regression models of the previous study were associated with a middle goodness of fit, a significant correlation was found between physical fitness found in the field tests and performance. The results from a partial correlation analysis indicated a significant correlation between the following: batting evaluation with back strength (p < 0.01) and medicine ball throwing (p <0.01); fielding evaluation with throwing distance (p < 0.05); and running evaluation with medicine ball throwing (p < 0.01), standing long jump (p < 0.05), T-test (p < 0.01), and base running (p < 0.01). It is certain that the performance of college baseball players is related to their physical fitness.     

Animal colour vision--behavioural tests and physiological concepts

Over a century ago workers such as J. Lubbock and K. von Frisch developed behavioural criteria for establishing that non‐human animals see colour. Many animals in most phyla have since then been shown to have colour vision. Colour is used for specific behaviours, such as phototaxis and object recognition, while other behaviours such as motion detection are colour blind. Having established the existence of colour vision, research focussed on the question of how many spectral types of photoreceptors are involved. Recently, data on photoreceptor spectral sensitivities have been combined with behavioural experiments and physiological models to study systematically the next logical question: ‘what neural interactions underlie colour vision ?‘This review gives an overview of the methods used to study animal colour vision, and discusses how quantitative modelling can suggest how photoreceptor signals are combined and compared to allow for the discrimination of biologically relevant stimuli.     

Physical fitness of blind and sighted children

Twenty-seven children (age 7-17 years) with varying degrees of blindness but with no other known disorder were assessed for physical fitness. Twenty-seven randomly selected children with normal eyesight were also assessed. Maximum oxygen uptake (VO2max) was measured directly during a progressive exercise test on a treadmill. There was a significant and substantial reduction in VO2max in totally blind children (mean +/- standard deviation 35.0 +/- 7.5 ml X min-1 X kg-1) compared with normal children (45.9 +/- 6.6 ml X min-1 X kg-1). Partially sighted children had a significant but smaller reduction in VO2max. Fitness assessed by a step-test was significantly reduced in the visually impaired children, and skin-fold thickness was also significantly greater in totally blind children. The level of habitual physical activity for each child, as assessed by a questionnaire, correlated with VO2max (r = 0.53, p less than 0.0001). Blind children were significantly less active than normal children, and the difference between mean VO2max for blind and normal children became non-significant when their different activity levels were taken into account. It is concluded that totally blind children are less fit than other children at least partly because of their lower level of habitual activity.     

Evaluation and recommendations for greater accessibility of colour figures in ornithology

People who are colour‐blind or have some form of colour vision deficiency form an invisible minority and scientists should strive to be as inclusive as possible. We reviewed 2873 figures published in 2019 from 1031 scientific papers in 27 ornithological journals to determine those that were colour‐blind compatible, and those that were black‐and‐white printer friendly. About 26% of the published figures were in colour, and while most were colour‐blind compatible, only ~ 60% of them were black‐and‐white printer friendly. Ensuring figures in all forms of scientific communication can be interpreted by readers who are colour‐blind, and can be printed in black‐and‐white will improve the accessibility of ornithological research.     

Dichromatic colour vision in an Australian marsupial, the tammar wallaby

Despite earlier assertions that most mammals are colour blind, colour vision has in recent years been demonstrated in a variety of eutherian mammals from a wide range of different orders. This paper presents the first behavioural evidence from colour discrimination experiments, that an Australian marsupial, the tammar wallaby (Macropus eugenii), has dichromatic colour vision. In addition, the experiments show that the wallabies readily learn the relationship between the presented colours rather than the absolute hues. This provides a sensitive method to measure the location of the neutral-point, which is the wavelength of monochromatic light that is indistinguishable from white. This point is a diagnostic feature for dichromats. The spectral sensitivity of the wallabies' middle-wavelength-sensitive photoreceptor is known (peak: 539 nm) and the behavioural results imply that the sensitivity of the short-wavelength-sensitive receptor must be near 420 nm. These spectral sensitivities are similar to those found in eutherian mammals, supporting the view that the earliest mammals had dichromatic colour vision. Accepted: 18 July 1999     

Color blindness among Aymara in Chile

Nine color blind subjects were discovered in a survey of 140 Aymaras of Arica, Chile, using as screening test a portable Anomaloscope, Ishihara tables and Hardy-Rand-Ritter plates. Pseudosisochromatic test failed on detecting four anomalous trichromates. Seven color blind subjects revealed foreign ancestors. Also a different prevalence of defectives among subsamples was observed. Thus color blindness variability within the sample could be explained by gene flow. It is proposed to use anomaloscopes as a screening device in order to survey with accuracy color vision genes in human populations.     

Superior serial memory in the blind: a case of cognitive compensatory adjustment

In the absence of vision, perception of space is likely to be highly dependent on memory. As previously stated, the blind tend to code spatial information in the form of "route-like" sequential representations [1-3]. Thus, serial memory, indicating the order in which items are encountered, may be especially important for the blind to generate a mental picture of the world. In accordance, we find that the congenitally blind are remarkably superior to sighted peers in serial memory tasks. Specifically, subjects heard a list of 20 words and were instructed to recall the words according to their original order in the list. The blind recalled more words than the sighted (indicating better item memory), but their greatest advantage was in recalling longer word sequences (according to their original order). We further show that the serial memory superiority of the blind is not merely a result of their advantage in item recall per se (as we additionally confirm via a separate recognition memory task). These results suggest the refinement of a specific cognitive ability to compensate for blindness in humans.     

Effect of various warm-up devices on bat velocity of intercollegiate softball players

Numerous warm-up devices are available for use by softball players while they are in the on-deck circle. It is difficult to know which warm-up device produces the greatest bat velocity (BV) in the batter's box for softball players because on-deck studies with these individuals are sparse. Because the majority of warm-up device research has been conducted with baseball players, the primary purpose of this study was to examine the effect of various warm-up devices on the BV of female intercollegiate softball players and compare the results with those of male baseball players. A secondary purpose was to evaluate 2 new commercially available resistance devices as warm-up aids. Nineteen Division I intercollegiate softball players (age = 19.8 ± 1.2 years, height = 167.0 ± 4.7 cm, body mass = 69.2 ± 8.6 kg, lean body mass = 49.6 ± 3.6 kg, % body fat = 27.9 ± 5.9) participated in a warm-up with 1 of 8 resistance devices on separate days. Each of the 8 testing sessions had players perform a standardized dynamic warm-up, 3 maximal dry swings mimicking their normal game swing with the assigned warm-up device, 2 comfortable dry swings with a standard 83.8-cm, 652-g (33-in., 23-oz) softball bat followed by 3 maximal game swings (20-second rest between swings) while hitting a softball off a batting tee with the same standard softball bat. Results indicated that there were no statistically significant differences in BV after using any of the 8 warm-up devices (510.3-2,721.5 g or 18-96 oz) similar to in previous baseball research. This indicates that the results for both male and female intercollegiate players are similar and that intercollegiate softball players can use any of the 8 warm-up devices in the on-deck circle and have similar BVs. However, similar to in other previous baseball research, it is not recommended that female intercollegiate softball players warm up with the popular commercial donut ring in the on-deck circle because it produced the slowest BV.     

Deficient colour vision and interpretation of histopathology slides: cross sectional study.

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether histopathologists with deficient colour vision make more errors in slide interpretation than those with normal colour vision. DESIGN: Examination of projected transparencies of histopathological slides under standardised conditions by subjects whose colour discriminating ability was accurately assessed. SETTING: Departments of histopathology in 45 hospitals in the United Kingdom. SUBJECTS: 270 male histopathologists and medical laboratory scientific officers. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Number of slides correctly identified by subjects whose colour vision was measured on the Ishihara, City University, and Farnsworth-Munsell 100 hue tests. RESULTS: Mean (SD) scores (out of 10) for doctors with colour deficient vision were 9.4 (0.7) v 9.9 (0.4) for controls (P < 0.01) and 7.5 (1.6) v 9.4 (0.7) for scientific officers (P < 0.001). When subjects with colour deficient vision were categorised into severe, moderate, or mild, there was a significant trend towards those with severe deficiency making more mistakes (P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Histopathologists and medical laboratory scientific officers should have their colour vision tested; if they are found to have a severe protan or deutan deficiency, they should be advised to adopt a safe system of working.