Increasing phage resistance of cheese starters : a case study using Lactococcus lactis DPC4268

This study serves as an example of strategies used to increase the phage resistance of an important Irish Cheddar cheese starter, Lactococcus lactis DPC4268. It describes the emergence and persistence of a lytic bacteriophage, 4268, that has a relatively large burst size and exhibits no homology to the most common phage types encountered in Irish cheese plants. Inherent difficulties were encountered that prevented the effective introduction of conjugative phage-resistance plasmids pNP40 and pMRC01 to strain DPC4268. In fact, pNP40-associated Abi systems were naturally present in six of 19 starters. Control of phage 4268 was eventually achieved by generating a mutant of DPC4268, which was subsequently used for cheese manufacture.     

Lactococcus lactis DPC5598, a plasmid-free derivative of a commercial starter,provides a valuable alternative host for culture improvement studies

AIMS: To generate a plasmid-free derivative of an extensively used industrial starter strain Lactococcus lactis DPC4268, which could be used as a backbone strain for starter improvement programmes. METHODS AND RESULTS: DPC4268 containing four large plasmids was subjected to high temperature plasmid curing resulting in derivatives, each with a different plasmid complement of one, two or three different plasmids in addition to a plasmid-free derivative. Industrially relevant phenotypes were assigned to each plasmid on the basis of detailed phenotypic and genetic analyses and these were (a) proteinase activity (Prt, 60 kb) (b) lactose fermentation (Lac, 55 kb) (c) bacteriophage adsorption inhibition (Ads, 44 kb) and (d) type I restriction/modification (R/M, 40 kb). The plasmid-free variant of DPC4268 was shown to be transformable at frequencies comparable to the common laboratory strain L. lactis MG1614. Furthermore its genome was demonstrated to be significantly different from the laboratory strains L. lactis MG1614 and the recently sequenced L. lactis IL1403 genomes by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis. CONCLUSIONS: This study produced an easily transformable plasmid-free derivative which was genomically different from both MG1614 and IL1403. In addition, important plasmid-borne industrial traits, including two phage-resistance mechanisms, were identified in DPC4268. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: L. DPC4268 is a vitally important commercial strain used in the manufacture of Cheddar cheese. The generation of a plasmid-free derivative may provide an important backbone strain as a basis for future strain improvement purposes.     

Plasmid involvement in the formation of a spontaneous bacteriophage insensitive mutant of Lactococcus lactis

Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis biovar. diacetylactis DPC721 is a spontaneous bacteriophage insensitive mutant of strain DPC220, isolated after challenge with an industrial bacteriophage, phi D1. Plasmid analysis demonstrated that the bacteriophage insensitivity was associated with the absence of two native DPC220 plasmids (pAH82 and pAH33), and the presence of a novel plasmid (pAH90) in DPC721. The plasmids were transferred by conjugative mobilization to a plasmid free background where it was confirmed by restriction mapping that pAH90 is a co-integrate formed by the precise recombination of pAH82 and pAH33. The resistance phenotype encoded by pAH90 was also active against two bacteriophage homologous for the plasmid-free strain. Plasmid pAH90 was shown to encode at least two independent resistance mechanisms, including an adsorption-inhibition mechanism and a restriction and modification system. The adsorption-inhibition mechanism encoded by the co-integrate plasmid was specific for one of the phage used in this study.     

An application in cheddar cheese manufacture for a strain of Lactococcus lactis producing a novel broad-spectrum bacteriocin, lacticin 3147.

Lactococcus lactis DPC3147, a strain isolated from an Irish kefir grain, produces a bacteriocin with a broad spectrum of inhibition. The bacteriocin produced is heat stable, particularly at a low pH, and inhibits nisin-producing (Nip+) lactococci. On the basis of the observation that the nisin structural gene (nisA) does not hybridize to DPC3147 genomic DNA, the bacteriocin produced was considered novel and designated lacticin 3147. The genetic determinants which encode lacticin 3147 are contained on a 63-kb plasmid, which was conjugally mobilized to a commercial cheese starter, L. lactis subsp. cremoris DPC4268. The resultant transconjugant, DPC4275, both produces and is immune to lacticin 3147. The ability of lacticin 3147-producing lactococci to perform as cheddar cheese starters was subsequently investigated in cheesemaking trials. Bacteriocin-producing starters (which included the transconjugant strain DPC4275) produced acid at rates similar to those of commercial strains. The level of lacticin 3147 produced in cheese remained constant over 6 months of ripening and correlated with a significant reduction in the levels of nonstarter lactic acid bacteria. Such results suggest that these starters provide a means of controlling developing microflora in ripened fermented products.     

Naturally occurring lactococcal plasmid pAH90 links bacteriophage resistance and mobility functions to a food-grade selectable marker

The bacteriophage resistance plasmid pAH90 (26,490 bp) is a natural cointegrate plasmid formed via homologous recombination between the type I restriction-modification specificity determinants (hsdS) of two smaller lactococcal plasmids, pAH33 (6,159 bp) and pAH82 (20,331 bp), giving rise to a bacteriophage-insensitive mutant following phage challenge (D. O'Sullivan, D. P. Twomey, A. Coffey, C. Hill, G. F. Fitzgerald, and R. P. Ross, Mol. Microbiol. 36:866-876; 2000). In this communication we provide evidence that the recombination event is favored by phage infection. The entire nucleotide sequence of plasmid pAH90 was determined and found to contain 24 open reading frames (ORFs) responsible for phenotypes which include restriction-modification, phage adsorption inhibition, plasmid replication, cadmium resistance, cobalt transport, and conjugative mobilization. The cadmium resistance property, encoded by the cadA gene, which has an associated regulatory gene (cadC), is of particular interest, as it facilitated the selection of pAH90 in other phage-sensitive lactococci after electroporation. In addition, we report the identification of a group II self-splicing intron bounded by two exons which have the capacity to encode a relaxase implicated in conjugation in gram-positive bacteria. The functionality of this intron was evident by demonstrating splicing in vivo. Given that pAH90 encodes potent phage defense systems which act at different stages in the phage lytic cycle, the linkage of these with a food-grade selectable marker on a replicon that can be mobilized among lactococci has significant potential for natural strain improvement for industrial dairy fermentations which are susceptible to phage inhibition.     

Inhibition of Listeria monocytogenes in cottage cheese manufactured with a lacticin 3147-producing starter culture

The efficacy of using a lacticin 3147-producing starter as a protective culture to improve the safety of cottage cheese was investigated. This involved the manufacture of cottage cheese using Lactococcus lactis DPC4268 (control) and L. lactis DPC4275, a bacteriocin-producing transconjugant strain derived from DPC4268. A number of Listeria monocytogenes strains, including a number of industrial isolates, were assayed for their sensitivity to lacticin 3147. These strains varied considerably with respect to their sensitivity to the bacteriocin. One of the more tolerant strains, Scott A, was used in the cottage cheese study; the cheese was subsequently inoculated with approximately 10(4) L. monocytogenes Scott A g-1. The bacteriocin concentration in the curd was measured at 2560 AU ml-1, and bacteriocin activity could be detected throughout the 1 week storage period. In cottage cheese samples held at 4 degrees C, there was at least a 99.9% reduction in the numbers of L. monocytogenes Scott A in the bacteriocin-containing cheese within 5 d, whereas in the control cheeses, numbers remained essentially unchanged. At higher storage temperatures, the kill rate was more rapid. These results demonstrate the effectiveness of lacticin 3147 as an inhibitor of L. monocytogenes in a food system where post-manufacture contamination by this organism could be problematic.     

Use of lacticin 481 to facilitate delivery of the bacteriophage resistance plasmid, pCBG104 to cheese starters

AIMS: Use of lacticin 481 to facilitate the conjugal transfer of the bacteriophage resistance plasmid pCBG104 to various starter cultures. METHODS AND RESULTS: A raw milk isolate of Lactococcus was found to harbour determinants for lacticin 481 production and immunity and phage resistance on a plasmid designated pCBG104. The lacticin 481 was successfully used to mobilize the phage resistance determinant to a variety of cheese starters enabling the formation of highly phage resistant starters. In addition, it facilitated the stacking of a number of phage resistance genes, namely a type I restriction modification system, a phage abortive infection system and a phage adsorption blocking system in a single Lactococcus strain without the use of recombinant techniques. The transconjugants were all shown to produce lacticin 481 and to contain the entire 481 operon. Subsequently one transconjugant was selected and successfully used for large-scale cheddar cheese manufacture. CONCLUSIONS: Lacticin 481 could be used as a food-grade selectable marker to facilitate the introduction of advantageous traits to starter cultures for industrial food fermentations. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMAPCT OF THE STUDY: Food-grade selectable markers greatly facilitate the introduction of various advantageous traits to starter cultures for industrial food fermentation. Indeed self-cloning which is becoming increasingly important for strain improvement has a requirement for the identification and demonstration of the utility of tools such as lacticin 481.     

Genotypic and technological characterization of Lactococcus lactis isolates involved in processing of artisanal Manchego cheese

Aims:  Genotypic and technological characterization of wild lactococci isolated from artisanal Manchego cheese during the ripening process for selection of suitable starter cultures.
Methods and Results:  A total of 114 isolates of lactococci were typed using randomly amplified polymorphic DNA-polymerase chain reaction (RAPD-PCR). Sixteen distinct RAPD-PCR patterns, at a similarity level of 73%, were obtained. On the basis of species-specific PCR reaction, the isolates were assigned to the species Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis and Lactococcus lactis subsp. cremoris with L. lactis subsp. lactis being predominant at both dairies. Twenty-six isolates were technologically characterized to select those with the best properties. Most of them showed good technological properties although some could produce tyramine.
Conclusions:  The presence of coincident genotypes at both dairies has been demonstrated, which would suggest that they are well adapted to the Manchego cheese environment. Interesting differences were found in the technological characterization and the potential role of autochthonous lactococci strains as starter culture has been displayed.
Significance and Impact of the Study:  The great economic importance of Manchego cheese encouraged a deeper knowledge of its microbiota, to select strains with the best properties to use as starter cultures in industrial Manchego cheeses, preserving the autochthonous characteristics.     

Naturally Occurring Lactococcal Plasmid pAH90 Links Bacteriophage Resistance and Mobility Functions to a Food-Grade Selectable Marker

The bacteriophage resistance plasmid pAH90 (26,490 bp) is a natural cointegrate plasmid formed via homologous recombination between the type I restriction-modification specificity determinants (hsdS) of two smaller lactococcal plasmids, pAH33 (6,159 bp) and pAH82 (20,331 bp), giving rise to a bacteriophage-insensitive mutant following phage challenge (D. O'Sullivan, D. P. Twomey, A. Coffey, C. Hill, G. F. Fitzgerald, and R. P. Ross, Mol. Microbiol. 36:866–876; 2000). In this communication we provide evidence that the recombination event is favored by phage infection. The entire nucleotide sequence of plasmid pAH90 was determined and found to contain 24 open reading frames (ORFs) responsible for phenotypes which include restriction-modification, phage adsorption inhibition, plasmid replication, cadmium resistance, cobalt transport, and conjugative mobilization. The cadmium resistance property, encoded by the cadA gene, which has an associated regulatory gene (cadC), is of particular interest, as it facilitated the selection of pAH90 in other phage-sensitive lactococci after electroporation. In addition, we report the identification of a group II self-splicing intron bounded by two exons which have the capacity to encode a relaxase implicated in conjugation in gram-positive bacteria. The functionality of this intron was evident by demonstrating splicing in vivo. Given that pAH90 encodes potent phage defense systems which act at different stages in the phage lytic cycle, the linkage of these with a food-grade selectable marker on a replicon that can be mobilized among lactococci has significant potential for natural strain improvement for industrial dairy fermentations which are susceptible to phage inhibition.     

Sequence analysis of the lactococcal plasmid pNP40: a mobile replicon for coping with environmental hazards

The conjugative lactococcal plasmid pNP40, identified in Lactococcus lactis subsp. diacetylactis DRC3, possesses a potent complement of bacteriophage resistance systems, which has stimulated its application as a fitness-improving, food-grade genetic element for industrial starter cultures. The complete sequence of this plasmid allowed the mapping of previously known functions including replication, conjugation, bacteriocin resistance, heavy metal tolerance, and bacteriophage resistance. In addition, functions for cold shock adaptation and DNA damage repair were identified, further confirming pNP40's contribution to environmental stress protection. A plasmid cointegration event appears to have been part of the evolution of pNP40, resulting in a "stockpiling" of bacteriophage resistance systems.     

Bacteriolytic activity caused by the presence of a novel lactococcal plasmid encoding lactococcins A, B, and M.

Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis biovar diacetylactis DPC938 was identified as a bacteriocin-producing strain which exhibited a bacteriolytic effect on other lactococci. Lysis of such target strains was associated with decreases in optical density and release of the intracellular enzyme lactate dehydrogenase. DPC938 exhibits cross-immunity to L. lactis subsp. cremoris 9B4 (M.J. van Belkum, B.J. Hayema, A. Geis, J. Kok, and G. Venema, Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 55:1187-1191, 1989), a strain which produces the bacteriocins lactococcins A, B, and M. Genetic analyses revealed that a 15.5-kb region of DNA encoding these bacteriocins is highly conserved in 9B4, DPC938, and DPC3286, an overproducing derivative of DPC938. This region is located on a 72- and a 78-kb nonmobilizable plasmid in DPC938 and DPC3286, respectively. The bacteriolytic effect exhibited by DPC938 and DPC3286 on sensitive cultures is most probably due to the concerted action of all three bacteriocins. Since these cultures exhibit a lytic effect on lactococci, they have a potential application in the dairy industry as accelerators of starter lysis and hence accelerators of cheese ripening.     

Variable bacteriocin production in the commercial starter Lactococcus lactis DPC4275 is linked to the formation of the cointegrate plasmid pMRC02

Lactococcus lactis DPC4275 is a bacteriocin-producing transconjugant of the industrial starter strain DPC4268. Strain DPC4275 was generated through conjugal transfer by mating DPC4268 with L. lactis MG1363 containing the 60-kb plasmid pMRC01, which encodes the genetic determinants for the lantibiotic lacticin 3147 and for a phage resistance mechanism of the abortive infection type. The many significant applications of this strain prompted a genetic analysis of its apparently unstable bacteriocin-producing phenotype. Increased levels of lacticin 3147 produced by DPC4275 were associated with the appearance of an 80-kb plasmid, designated pMRC02, which was derived from DNA originating from pMRC01 (60 kb) and a resident DPC4268 proteinase plasmid, pMT60 (60 kb). Indeed, pMRC02 was shown to be derived from the insertion of a 17-kb fragment of pMRC01, encompassing the lacticin 3147 operon, into pMT60. The presence of pMRC02 at a high copy number was found to correlate with increased levels of lacticin 3147 in DPC4275 compared to the wild-type containing pMRC01. Subsequent transfer of pMRC02 into the plasmid-free strain MG1363 by electroporation allowed a direct phenotypic comparison with pMRC01, also studied in the MG1363 background. Plasmid pMRC02 displayed phage resistance similar to that by pMRC01, although it was less potent, as demonstrated by a larger plaque size for phage c2 infection of MG1363(pMRC02). While this locus is flanked by IS946 elements, the sequencing of pMT60-pMRC01 junction sites established that this event was unlikely to be insertion sequence mediated and most probably occurred by homologous recombination followed by deletion of most of pMRC01. This was not a random occurrence, as nine other transconjugants investigated were found to have the same junction sites. Such derivatives of commercial strains producing increased levels of bacteriocin could be exploited as protection cultures for food applications.     

Preliminary characterization of lactic acid bacteria isolated from Zlatar cheese

AIMS: Isolation, characterization and identification of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) from artisanal Zlatar cheese during the ripening process and selection of strains with good technological characteristics. METHODS AND RESULTS: Characterization of LAB was performed based on morphological, physiological and biochemical assays, as well as, by determining proteolytic activity and plasmid profile. rep-polymerase chain reaction (PCR) analysis and 16S rDNA sequencing were used for the identification of LAB. PCR analysis was performed with specific primers for detection of the gene encoding nisin production. Strains Lactobacillus paracasei subsp. paracasei, Lactobacillus plantarum, Lactobacillus brevis, Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis, Enterococcus faecium and Enterococcus faecalis were the main groups present in the Zlatar cheese during ripening. CONCLUSIONS: Temporal changes in the species were observed during the Zlatar cheese ripening. Mesophilic lactobacilli are predominant microflora in Zlatar cheese. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: In this study we determined that Zlatar cheese up to 30 days old could be used as a source of strains for the preparation of potential starter cultures in the process of industrial cheese production. As the Serbian food market is adjusting to European Union regulations, the standardization of Zlatar cheese production by using starter culture(s) based on autochtonous well-characterized LAB will enable the industrial production of this popular cheese in the future.     

Variable Bacteriocin Production in the Commercial Starter Lactococcus lactis DPC4275 Is Linked to the Formation of the Cointegrate Plasmid pMRC02

Lactococcus lactis DPC4275 is a bacteriocin-producing transconjugant of the industrial starter strain DPC4268. Strain DPC4275 was generated through conjugal transfer by mating DPC4268 with L. lactis MG1363 containing the 60-kb plasmid pMRC01, which encodes the genetic determinants for the lantibiotic lacticin 3147 and for a phage resistance mechanism of the abortive infection type. The many significant applications of this strain prompted a genetic analysis of its apparently unstable bacteriocin-producing phenotype. Increased levels of lacticin 3147 produced by DPC4275 were associated with the appearance of an 80-kb plasmid, designated pMRC02, which was derived from DNA originating from pMRC01 (60 kb) and a resident DPC4268 proteinase plasmid, pMT60 (60 kb). Indeed, pMRC02 was shown to be derived from the insertion of a 17-kb fragment of pMRC01, encompassing the lacticin 3147 operon, into pMT60. The presence of pMRC02 at a high copy number was found to correlate with increased levels of lacticin 3147 in DPC4275 compared to the wild-type containing pMRC01. Subsequent transfer of pMRC02 into the plasmid-free strain MG1363 by electroporation allowed a direct phenotypic comparison with pMRC01, also studied in the MG1363 background. Plasmid pMRC02 displayed phage resistance similar to that by pMRC01, although it was less potent, as demonstrated by a larger plaque size for phage c2 infection of MG1363(pMRC02). While this locus is flanked by IS946 elements, the sequencing of pMT60-pMRC01 junction sites established that this event was unlikely to be insertion sequence mediated and most probably occurred by homologous recombination followed by deletion of most of pMRC01. This was not a random occurrence, as nine other transconjugants investigated were found to have the same junction sites. Such derivatives of commercial strains producing increased levels of bacteriocin could be exploited as protection cultures for food applications.     

Nucleotide sequence and characterization of the cell envelope proteinase plasmid in Lactococcus lactis subsp. cremoris HP

AIMS: The major cell envelope proteinase (lactocepin; EC 3.4.21.96) produced by Lactococcus lactis cheese starter bacteria is required for starter growth and acid production in milk. The aim of this study was to characterize a lactocepin plasmid from a L. lactis subsp. cremoris cheese starter strain. METHODS AND RESULTS: A restriction map of the lactocepin plasmid pHP003 from strain HP was constructed, fragments were cloned in Escherichia coli vectors, and the complete DNA sequence (13,433 bp) was determined. Among 120 industrial L. lactis starter strains screened, five contained the same specificity-type lactocepin as pHP003. The lactocepin gene in these strains was invariably linked with a partially-deleted abiB gene. CONCLUSION: The lactocepin specificity type of strain HP, conferred by a known configuration of key residues, is relatively uncommon. The gene is invariably linked with a partially deleted abiB gene on each lactocepin plasmid. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: This is the first complete sequence reported for a lactocepin plasmid, and provides the basis for better understanding, or manipulation, of lactocepin production.     

Comparison of the acidifying activity of Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis strains isolated from goat's milk and Valdeteja cheese

AIMS: This work was carried out to study the acid production by Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis strains isolated from goat's milk and goat cheese (Valdeteja variety) in order to select a suitable starter culture for industrial goat cheese manufacturing. METHODS AND RESULTS: The titrable acidity of 45 Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis strains isolated from a home-made batch of Valdeteja cheese with excellent sensory characteristics was measured over a period of 18 h. The strains were divided into two groups depending on the acid production rate: 20 fast acid producer (F) strains and 25 slow acid producer (S) strains. The kinetic parameters (lag phase, maximum acid production rate and value of upper asymptote curve) of the acid production curves for F and S strains were significantly (P < 0.001) different. CONCLUSIONS: Significant (P < 0.001) differences between titrable acidity of F and S strains were observed after the second hour of incubation. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: An F strain acetoin producer (Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis 470Ch2) was selected as autochthonous starter culture for industrial Valdeteja goat cheese manufacturing.     

Hydrophilic and hydrophobic peptides produced in cheese by wild Lactococcus lactis strains

AIMS: To study the production of hydrophilic and hydrophobic peptides in cheese by 32 wild Lactococcus lactis strains of different RAPD patterns and to compare them with the peptides produced by lactococcal cells incubated with whole casein. METHOD AND RESULTS: Chromatograms of peptides from cheeses made using each strain as single starter culture were divided into five regions, and strains were classified in three groups by hierarchical cluster analysis of region areas. Thirty out of the 32 wild L. lactis strains produced higher levels of hydrophobic peptides in cheese than on whole casein. CONCLUSIONS: Cheese was a more favourable substrate than whole casein for hydrophobic peptide formation by L. lactis strains. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: New strains of lactococci should be screened for bitterness under cheese conditions, as the formation of hydrophobic peptides may be underestimated in assays with casein as substrate.     

Proteolytic enzyme activities in Cheddar cheese juice made using lactococcal starters of differing autolytic properties

AIMS: To determine proteolytic enzyme activities released in Cheddar cheese juice manufactured using lactococcal starter strains of differing autolytic properties. METHODS AND RESULTS: The activities of residual chymosin, cell envelope proteinase and a range of intracellular proteolytic enzymes were determined during the first 70 days of ripening when starter lactococci predominate the microbial flora. In general, in cell free extracts (CFE) of the strains, the majority of proteolytic activities was highest for Lactococcus lactis HP, intermediate for L. lactis AM2 and lowest for L. lactis 303. However, in cheese juice, as ripening progressed, released proteolytic activities were highest for the highly autolytic strain L. lactis AM2, intermediate for L. lactis 303 and lowest for L. lactis HP. CONCLUSIONS: These results indicate that strain related differences in autolysis influence proteolytic enzyme activities released into Cheddar cheese during ripening. No correlation was found between proteolytic potential of the starter strains measured in CFE prior to cheese manufacture and levels of activities released in cheese juice. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: The findings further support the importance of autolysis of lactococcal starters in determining the levels of proteolytic activities present in cheese during initial stages of ripening.     

Genome analysis of the obligately lytic bacteriophage 4268 of Lactococcus lactis provides insight into its adaptable nature

Analysis of the complete nucleotide sequence of the lactococcal phage 4268, which is lytic for the cheese starter Lactococcus lactis DPC4268, is presented. Phage 4268 has a linear genome of 36,596 bp, which is modularly organised and encompasses 49 open reading frames. Putative functions were assigned to approximately 45% of the predicted products of these open reading frames based on sequence similarity with known proteins, N-terminal sequence analysis and identification of conserved domains. Significantly, a segment of the genome has homology to the recently sequenced lysogenic module in lactococcal phage phi31 that contains a lytic switch but no phage integrase or attachment site. This suggests that it is derived from a prophage. A phage 4268-encoded and a host-encoded methylase were found to be highly similar, having only two nucleotide mismatches, suggesting that the phage acquired the methylase gene to protect it from a host endonuclease. Comparative genomic analysis revealed significant homology between phage 4268 and the lactococcal phage BK5-T. The comparative analysis also supported the classification of phage 4268 and other BK5-T-related phage as separate from the proposed P335 species of lactococcal phage.     

Genotypic and phenotypic heterogeneity among lactococci isolated from traditional Pecorino Sardo cheese

Twenty-nine Lactococcus lactis isolates from one traditional 24 h-old Pecorino Sardo cheese were characterized phenotypically, technologically and genotypically in order to assess the biodiversity within this wild microbial population. Two DNA-based techniques, plasmid profiling and PFGE, were used for the genetic typing of the isolates. All 29 isolates were characterized at strain level and eight different genotypes were recognized. In addition, by combining the results from plasmid profile analysis and PFGE, it was possible to identify closely related isolates probably belonging to the same clonal lineage. The dominant biotype was identified in the 24 h-old cheese, as were the strains believed to act as starters for the curd. Atypical lactococci, able to grow in 6.5% NaCl, were isolated. The results suggest that wild bacterial populations should be preserved in order to protect the traditional raw milk cheeses, and to select new starter strains for the dairy industry.