Socialization of a Single Hand-Reared Tiger Cub

Given the drawbacks of hand-rearing nonhuman animals in captivity, the practice is generally avoided, but it is sometimes necessary. A few scientific publications are available to guide managers toward best practices in hand-rearing, but the majority of articles focus on hand-rearing captive primates. Less is known about hand-rearing carnivores, but early socialization appears to be critical for adult social behavior. This article documents the successful hand-rearing and reintroduction of a single female Sumatran tiger cub at Zoo Atlanta. Reintroduction included a systematic procedure that used scent trials and introduction sessions through a barrier to gauge interest and determine whether or not aggression was a problem. Based on signs of interest, reduced stress-related behaviors, and a lack of aggression, animal managers decided to proceed with reintroduction. During the introductions, the animals were not aggressive and did occasionally interact, although typical mother–infant interactions were rare. The cub has since bred naturally and successfully delivered and reared two litters of cubs. These data suggest limited exposure to an adult tiger may be adequate socialization for normal reproduction even if it is provided relatively late in the cub's development.     

Assessing Initial Reintroduction Success in Long-Lived Primates by Quantifying Survival, Reproduction, and Dispersal Parameters: Western Lowland Gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) in Congo and Gabon

Postrelease monitoring is an important aspect of reintroduction projects, one outcome of which is to allow an assessment of the initial success of the reintroduction, often measured by quantifying survival and reproduction rates. In long-lived species, accurate estimations of demographic parameters are difficult to obtain, and therefore assessment of reintroduction success in such species is challenging. To assess the initial success of a reintroduction program for the long-lived, slow-reproducing, and critically endangered western lowland gorilla Gorilla gorilla gorilla, we analyzed postrelease monitoring data from 2 reintroduced populations, in the Batéké Plateau region of the Republics of Congo and Gabon, to quantify several demographic parameters, and compared our results with published data on wild gorilla populations. Annual survival rate of the 51 released gorillas was 97.4%, 9 females gave birth to 11 infants at an annual birth rate of 0.196 births per adult female, and first-year survival of the infants was 81.8%. Annual birth rate within the reintroduced populations is not significantly different from that given for wild western gorilla populations, and other demographic parameters fall within the range of published data for wild gorilla populations. Our analysis illustrates that the reintroduction program has been successful in terms of the initial measures of postrelease survival and reproduction, and our quantitative data should facilitate the development of a population model that can predict the probability of population persistence and therefore provide an indication of longer-term reintroduction success.     

What defines successful integration into a social group for hand-reared chimpanzee infants?

Hand-rearing of captive great ape infants is sometimes necessary but can have negative behavioral consequences. Modern hand-rearing protocols, including early integration into a diverse group of conspecifics, appear to reduce the negative consequences of hand-rearing, but the process of integration is not well studied. We investigated six potential metrics of success during the introduction of two hand-reared chimpanzee infants into a troop of nine other chimpanzees at the Maryland Zoo in Baltimore. Little aggression was observed and the infants continue to be maintained in the troop at publication. As we predicted, during the introduction the hand-reared infants showed consistent levels of stress-related behaviors, participated in affiliative interactions with all available partners, and acted, received, and mutually engaged in these interactions. Solitary behaviors by these infants were similar to a mother-reared infant in the same group. Each infant also formed a relationship with a specific female that involved nest-sharing, carrying, retrieval, and intervening to reduce risk to the infant; these relationships could be classified as allomothering because they involved maternal behavior but occupied significantly less of the infants’ time than a maternal relationship. Contrary to our prediction, the hand-reared infants therefore spent significantly less time in social behavior than a mother-reared infant of the same age. In addition, the hand-reared infants continued to show strong social preferences for each other as introductions progressed and to direct a low but consistent number of nonfeeding social behaviors to humans. The successful introduction of hand-reared infants appeared to involve adding conspecific social relationships to the infants’ social repertoire, but not eliminating social interactions directed at humans.     

Artificial incubation,hand-rearing,behavior, and release of common 'Amakihi (Hemignathus virens virens): Surrogate research for restoration of endangered Hawaiian forest birds

In order to test the effectiveness of captive-rearing and release strategies for future restoration of birds in Hawai'i, this pilot study was conducted in forests where introduced avian disease and mammalian predators were present. Methodology used resulted in the first successful hatching of Drepanidinae eggs in an incubator and subsequent hand-rearing of chicks from hatch. Sixteen Common 'Amakihi (Hemignathus virens virens) (mean hatch weight = 1.4 g) were hand-reared. Two different reintroduction strategies were evaluated for small honeycreepers. Known mortality in the wild after release was due to mosquito-transmitted disease (avian malaria and pox). This pilot study shows that the techniques necessary to hatch, rear, and release endangered Hawaiian honeycreepers are available. However, restoration efforts will probably not succeed unless mosquito-free, predator-controlled reintroduction sites are available or strategies are developed to decrease mortality in naive honeycreepers exposed to disease after release. © 1996 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Artificial incubation and hand-rearing of 'Alala (Corvus hawaiiensis) eggs removed from the wild

The wild 'Alala (Corvus hawaiiensis) population has been declining for many years, and only a few pairs of birds are currently reproductively active on the island of Hawaii. A recovery program was initiated in 1993 which included removing eggs from wild nesting birds for artificial rearing and reintroduction. This paper describes the artificial incubation and hand-rearing techniques. Eleven eggs were removed from three nesting pairs; eight were fertile, and seven hatched and were hand-reared (fertility, 72.7%; hatchability, 87.5%; survivability, 100%). Eggs were incubated in a forced-air incubator at 99.5°F (dry bulb), 80.0–86.0°F (wet bulb), and hatched under still-air conditions at 99.0°F (dry bulb) and 88.0–90°F (wet bulb). Hatched chicks were hand-fed a diet of fruit, insects, and mouse pups. © 1994 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

On the sustainability of a reintroduced Crested Ibis population in Qinling Mountains,Shaanxi, Central China

Reintroduction projects aim to reestablish a self‐sustaining population of an endangered species within its historical range. Adequate post‐release monitoring by gathering demographic data is important to evaluate the success of a reintroduction. Survival and reproduction rates of a reintroduced population can be compared with a self‐sustaining wild population to evaluate the success of a reintroduction. In early 2007, Nipponia nippon (Crested Ibis) was reintroduced into the Qinling Mountains (Shaanxi, Central China). In this study, we attempt to evaluate the demographic status of the reintroduced population. Age‐specific survival rates of 56 released adults and 77 wild‐born fledglings were estimated using mark‐recapture data obtained from 2007 to 2014. Survival rates for the yearlings (0.599, with 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.467–0.719) were lower than the estimates from a wild population in Yangxian County, but the survival rates of the adults (0.678, with 95% CI: 0.603–0.745) were similar. The number of breeding pairs gradually increased since 2008, although breeding success (52.5%) was somewhat less than that of the wild population (67.6%). The stochastic estimation of population growth rate (1.084 with 95% CI: 1.069–1.098) and population size (5‐fold increase) estimated from an age‐classified Leslie matrix indicate that the reintroduced population of the Crested Ibis is more likely in regulation phase over the next 25 years. We conclude that the reintroduction of the Crested Ibis in Qinling Mountains has great promise, and progress toward a self‐sustaining population has been made under some interventions. Governments, local communities, and scientists need to facilitate habitat restoration for the long‐term survival of this endangered species.     

A detector dog for screwworms (Diptera: Calliphoridae)

A male German wirehaired pointer, Canis familiaris L., was trained to search for and locate screwworm, Cochliomyia hominivorax (Coquerel); pupae; and animals infested with screwworms. The command, "find it" led to the detection of a screwworm-infested animal and the command "search" led to the detection of screwworm pupae. After approximately 5 mo of training, the dog could detect screwworm-infested animals. After 3 mo more of training, the dog could detect screwworm pupae. Through 7 August 1989, the dog had a success rate of 100% (265 tests) with training dummies and 94.7% (18 successes for 19 tests) with screwworm-infested animals, for an overall success rate of 99.7% (285 successes for 286 tests). Use of detector dogs at quarantine stations could result in increased efficiency, economic savings, and decreased possibility of reintroduction of screwworms into eradicated areas.     

德保苏铁回归种群繁殖特征的初步研究

以位于广西黄连山自然保护区的德保苏铁Cycas debaoensis回归种群为对象,从开花情况、传粉媒介、传粉昆虫数量、结实率、种子散播媒介和方式等方面,与德保苏铁模式产地的自然种群进行比较研究。结果表明,2016年回归种群与自然种群开花植株分别为149和49株,雄雌性比分别为3.96∶1和4.44∶1,开花植株占比分别为31.63%和19.52%,自然结实率分别为60.53%和86.53%。留存在雌株上的未脱落种子一年内的萌发率分别为53.13%和42.51%,一年内幼苗存活率分别为0和3.56%;因重力或外力(雨水、风和动物)搬运后散布的种子一年内的萌发率分别为42.51%和38.46%,一年内幼苗存活率分别为74.46%和88.26%。与自然种群一样,回归种群的有效传粉者为大蕈甲科甲虫,但传粉昆虫数量较少,每雌球花有23.5头甲虫。回归种群结实率低于自然种群,可能的原因是传粉昆虫数量相对较少。啮齿动物等外力对种子的散布能显著提高幼苗存活率并直接影响幼苗的定植与分布,对回归种群的补充与更新有重要影响。总体上,黄连山德保苏铁回归种群在自然界中已能顺利完成生长和繁殖进程,基本具备自我更新能力。     

Adaptation to Forest Life During the Reintroduction Process of Immature <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pongo abelii</Emphasis>

Reintroduction of Sumatran orangutans can be an important tool to conserve the species in the face of the current decline of wild populations. Monitoring ex-captive orangutans during the reintroduction process provides insight into their adaptation to forest life and is important for evaluating the success of such programs. We investigated activity patterns, food choice, height use, and nest-building abilities of 8 immature orangutans at a reintroduction station in Sumatra. All focal individuals spent most of their time in the forest feeding, but at a lower proportion than wild conspecifics. Among the focal individuals, the behavior of orangutans that avoided human contact differed in several aspects from those that were human bonded. Their diet was composed mainly of fruits, similar to the food choice of wild orangutans, and their ground-avoidance and superior nest-building abilities indicated more effective predation-avoidance behavior vs. that of human-bonded animals. Finally, these immatures showed regular social contact with more experienced conspecifics, which ultimately may facilitate the social learning of local feral expertise. Human-bonded individuals, in contrast, preferentially stayed on the ground and at low heights and rarely built nests, thereby increasing predation risk. Their choice of leaves over fruits as foods indicated a less effective foraging strategy. Nevertheless, this group exhibited individual learning trends toward an adult-like foraging pattern and height use. We conclude that social interactions with conspecifics and humans, especially during an early developmental period, can affect adaptation to forest life and probably also influence the success of orangutan reintroduction processes.     

A simplified method using commercial milk powder for hand-rearing of the Caesarean-derived infant rabbits (author's transl)

An efficient and simplified method for hand-rearing of Caesarean-derived infant rabbits under gnotobiotic condition was devised. The Caesarean-derived infant Dutch or Japanese-White rabbits and their hybrids (F1; Japanese-White female x Dutch male) were reared in sterilized vinyl-isolators by hand-feeding with two kinds of milk diets, A and B, consisted mainly ofa commercial milk powder for dogs and cats (Esbilac) supplemented with several minor components (Table 2) and administered intragastrically once a day through a Nelaton's catheter. Bacteriological examinations revealed that feces and urine were sterile for the first three days. On the third day, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Streptococcus faecalis, Bacillus subtilis, Enterococcus, and Bacteroides sp. were given with milk diet and the infant rabbits were reared until 10 to 12 weeks of age. The weaning rate at 5 weeks of age and the raising rate at 3 months of age were approximately 78% and 77%, respectively (Table 3), indicating that feeding once-a-day with a milk diet mainly composed of Esbilac is suitable for the hand-rearing of infant rabbits. There was, however, no significant difference milk diet A and B on the weaning rate.     

Behavioural Ecology and Group Cohesion of Juvenile Western Lowland Gorillas (Gorilla g. gorilla) during Rehabilitation in the Batéké Plateaux National Park,Gabon

Rehabilitation of animals followed by reintroduction into the wild can benefit conservation by supplementing depleted wild populations or reintroducing a species in an area where it has been extirpated or become extinct. The western lowland gorilla (WLG, Gorilla g. gorilla) is persistently poached; infants are often illegally traded and used as pets. Some are confiscated and rehabilitated, then kept in sanctuaries or reintroduced into the wild. Prior to reintroduction, the ability of the orphans to survive independently in their environment needs to be assessed. Here, we performed a multivariate analysis, including diet composition, activity-budget, and pattern of strata using of a group of five juvenile WLG in the process of rehabilitation and distinguished three sub-periods of ecological significance: the high furgivory period, the Dialium fruits consumption period, and the high folivory period. The consequences of these variations on their well-being (play behaviour) and the group cohesion (spatial proximity and social interactions) were examined. Like wild WLGs, diets shifted seasonally from frugivorous to folivorous, while the same staple foods were consumed and large amounts of Dialium fruits were seasonally gathered high in trees. When succulent fruit intake was the highest, thus providing high energy from sugar, juveniles spent less time feeding, more time playing and group cohesion was the highest. Conversely, the cohesion decreased with increasing folivory, individuals spent more time feeding and less time playing together. Nonetheless, the group cohesion also decreased after the death of one highly social, wild-born orphan. This may underscore the importance of skilled individuals in the cohesion and well-being of the entire group and, ultimately, to rehabilitation success. This study evaluates the rehabilitation success with regards to the methods used and highlights the need to consider a set of individual and environmental factors for enhancing rehabilitation while preserving the local biodiversity and individual well-being.     

Techniques for hand-rearing tree-shrews (Tupaia belangeri) from birth

In captivity, Tupaia belangeri (Thailand tree-shrew) frequently show aberrant patterns of maternal care which result in the death of offspring. In order to maximize the potential of the tree-shrew as an animal resource for experimental studies we have developed a program for hand-rearing tupaiidae from birth. Newborn tree-shrews were removed from mothers with a history of poor parental care to a nursery maintained under conditions of controlled relative humidity (70 ± 10%) and temperature (25 ± 1°C) on a 12 h dark: 12 h light cycle. The young tree-shrews were fed on a liquid formula until the eyes opened (Day 18–23) and for the subsequent 10 days on a transitional diet until they could feed themselves on solid food. Our hand-rearing protocol appears to conform to the natural weaning pattern of tupaiids. Food consumption during the liquid diet phase was linearly related to age and the increase in body weight in both sexes. The initial growth rate of male and female hand-reared tree-shrews was slower than that of maternally reared animals during the liquid diet phase. The growth rate accelerated subsequently and the body weight of hand-reared tree-shrews eventually reached that of maternally reared animals of the same sex. Various developmental changes occurred during the same period in artificially and naturally reared animals. In both hand-reared and maternally reared groups, the growth rate of male tree-shrews exceeded that of females from about Day 40 onward. The accelerated growth rate of male tree-shrews was in apparent association with an increase in androgen secretion at the onset of puberty. The high fecundity of tree-shrews in captivity reinforced with a program for hand-rearing the young make T belangeri a potential alternative to more conventional laboratory species in specific areas of biomedical research.     

Reintroduction of freshwater macroinvertebrates: challenges and opportunities

Species reintroductions – the translocation of individuals to areas in which a species has been extirpated with the aim of re‐establishing a self‐sustaining population – have become a widespread practice in conservation biology. Reintroduction projects have tended to focus on terrestrial vertebrates and, to a lesser extent, fishes. Much less effort has been devoted to the reintroduction of invertebrates into restored freshwater habitats. Yet, reintroductions may improve restoration outcomes in regions where impoverished regional species pools limit the self‐recolonisation of restored freshwaters. We review the available literature on macroinvertebrate reintroductions, focusing on identifying the intrinsic and extrinsic factors that determine their success or failure. Our study reveals that freshwater macroinvertebrate reintroductions remain rare, are often published in the grey literature and, of the attempts made, approximately one‐third fail. We identify life‐cycle complexity and remaining stressors as the two factors most likely to affect reintroduction success, illustrating the unique challenges of freshwater macroinvertebrate reintroductions. Consideration of these factors by managers during the planning process and proper documentation – even if a project fails – may increase the likelihood of successful outcomes in future reintroduction attempts of freshwater macroinvertebrates.     

移地与圈养大熊猫野外放归的探讨

移地是指将生物有机体从一个区域自由释放到另一区域的移动,通常包括引入、重引入以及复壮等3 种类型。野生动物的移地有较悠久的历史。在许多国家,通过移地以维持濒危野生动物种群在野外的长期续存已成为保护生物学上的一种重要手段。影响圈养动物野外放归成功的因素主要来自物种生物学特性、自然环境、社会生物学以及放归方式等几方面,同时,放归亦给基础生态学研究带来了新的机遇与挑战。大熊猫是我国特有的珍稀兽类,分布在秦岭、岷山、邛崃山、大相岭、小相岭以及凉山等几大隔离的山系。由于部分山系栖息地的高度破碎以及隔离小种群普遍面临的来自种群及环境等随机因素的影响,单纯依靠就地保护的措施可能并不足以保证这些隔离小种群在野外长期续存。在圈养大熊猫种群数量不断增加的情况下,将圈养个体放归野外以复壮孤立小种群应是一种有效的保护手段,同时,随着大熊猫栖息地质量的逐步改善,圈养大熊猫野外放归的时机亦逐步成熟。文中尚就圈养大熊猫放归野外之前亟待解决的问题进行了讨论。     

Assessment of Potential Karner Blue Butterfly (Lycaeides melissa samuelis) (Family: Lycanidae) Reintroduction Sites in Ontario, Canada

Although species reintroduction is useful as both an integral part and a performance indicator of habitat restoration, it is not a risk‐free process. Evaluation of potential reintroduction sites is often crucially important in reducing chances of failure. Despite its importance, there is no standard way to do so. This study applied a systematic scheme to evaluate five potential reintroduction sites for the endangered Karner Blue butterfly (Lycaeides melissa samuelis Nabokov) in Ontario, Canada, by looking at both biotic and abiotic aspects. Field data were collected in 2003 from these sites, and three potential founder butterfly sites in the United States. We used data collected from the U.S. sites to determine the minimum standards for ecological requirements of the Karner Blue. Data from the Ontario sites were then compared against these standards. The results show that all five potential reintroduction sites are of lower quality, at least in certain aspects, compared with the three potential founder butterfly sites. This implies that success is not guaranteed if the Karner Blue is reintroduced into these sites under current habitat conditions. Further site restoration is required and should focus on the shortcomings identified for individual sites in this study. The lessons from this study are useful for potential reintroduction site assessment in other restoration projects because they reveal whether the sites are ready for species reintroduction and, if not, how they need to be improved.     

Microhabitat suitability as a tool to improve the success rate of a translocation or reintroduction,case‐study of the bullhead (Cottus perifretum) in Flanders,Belgium

Microhabitat suitability models are useful tools to enhance the reintroduction success of fish. Since 2008, a translocation and reintroduction program has been carried out in Flanders to prevent substantial loss of genetic variability in the Cottus perifretum (bullhead) population, and to meet the goals set by the Habitat Directive. To this end, habitat suitability of potential headstreams was assessed on a macrohabitat and microhabitat scale prior to the reintroduction. On a macrohabitat scale, water quality, habitat structure, food availability, and fish community were screened. Based on microhabitat models for bullhead in the summer period, microhabitat suitability was assessed in headstreams where macrohabitat characteristics showed a high potential for success. Both macro‐ and microhabitat assessment showed that reintroduction of bullheads in the Nellebeek, Bruelbeek, and Mollendaalbeek would most likely lead to self‐sustaining populations. For the Sint‐Annabeek, the microhabitat suitability model, considering depth and stream velocity, estimates that 7.5–9.5% of the headstream is suitable for bullhead. However, when substratum is taken into account, the microhabitat suitability index shows that only 4.3–5.8% of the brook is suitable. The current habitat quality and quantity in the Sint‐Annabeek is estimated to support a mean total population of 812 bullheads. However, the microhabitat suitability can be substantially improved by the artificial deposition of medium‐sized gravel (5–50 mm) and large gravel (50–100 mm). By doing so, the mean estimated population size could increase up to 1,330 individuals. Our results show that habitat improvement is necessary prior to the reintroduction of bullheads in the Sint‐Annabeek.     

急救中光棒法与直接喉镜法气管插管引发心血管反应的比较

目的:比较光棒法与直接喉镜法气管插管对心血管系统的影响,探讨光棒在临床急救领域的适用性。方法:选取我院急诊科室进行抢救的80名患者,随机分为两组,分别采用光棒法和直接喉镜法进行气管插管。记录插管所需时间、一次插管成功次数,以及插管前、插管时、插管后1分钟、插管后3分钟患者的收缩压、舒张压、平均动脉压、心率和血氧饱和度的变化情况。数据分析使用使用检验、t检验秩和检验、重复测量方差分析。结果:两组间性别、年龄、身高、体重、ASA、Mallampati评分差异无统计学意义,具备可比性。光棒组平均插管时间少于喉镜组(光棒:31.23 9.94秒,喉镜:48.15 8.67秒),一次插管成功率(97.5%)也高于喉镜组(80.0%)。经重复测量方差分析结果显示,光棒组各时点的收缩压(F=38.312,P=0.000)、舒张压(F=219.692,P=0.000)、平均动脉压(F=54.739,P=0.000)、心率(F=195.161,P=0.000)的整体趋势要低于与喉镜组。血氧饱和度(F=0.020,P=0.889)在两组间差异无统计学意义。结论:在气管插管过程中,光棒法比直接喉镜法引发的心血管系统变化更小,而且插管所需时间更短、一次成功率更高,是一种值得在急诊科室推广的气管插管技术。     

Demographic parameters of reintroduced grey partridges in central Italy and the effect of weather

Grey partridge populations declined in Europe from mid-1950s onwards mostly due to modifications of agricultural cropping. In Italy, the decline was even more dramatic because of over-hunting and restocking with allochthonous birds. We carried out a research on a re-introduced population in Central Italy from 1995 to 2005, with the aim of evaluating the reintroduction success and separating the intrinsic and external factors influencing year-to-year changes in partridge density with particular respect to the weather. Average spring density was 4.5 pairs per square kilometre (SD?=?1.52); our population reached a peak few years after the reintroduction and then declined. Brood production rate was close to that of declining European populations (average 33.9%; SD?=?10.21), and chick survival rate (average 40%; SD?=?17.61) determined the change of breeding abundance from year t to year t?+?1. Our population seemed to be mainly affected by brood production and chick survival rates and by the weather; in particular, higher early winter and spring temperatures increased breeding density whilst higher early summer temperatures decreased brood production rate.     

Improving reintroduction planning and implementation through quantitative SWOT analysis

Recent decades have seen increasing use and importance of translocations and reintroductions as tools for species’ conservation and ecological restorations. Most such efforts face substantial logistical complexities and high costs, both biological and financial. These and other challenges have contributed to numerous failures or partial successes of reintroductions, a trend which has improved little over time. Given the negative ramifications of reintroduction failures, practitioners have adopted or developed numerous analytical and procedural methods in efforts to promote successful outcomes. However, many such methods are often ad hoc or taxon-specific, particularly regarding the evaluation and selection of reintroduction areas and sites. Despite the recognized importance of this phase of reintroduction planning, there is to date no comprehensive methodology for selecting suitable reintroduction sites. We describe in detail the application of quantitative SWOT (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats) analysis for objectively evaluating candidate reintroduction areas or sites, and how results of this analysis are used for identifying the most effective and efficient management actions for promoting reintroduction success. We use examples drawn from recent reintroduction plans for three avian species in Puerto Rico (1) and Brazil (2) to illustrate specific methodologies used as well as the results obtained and their application to the reintroduction planning and implementation process. From our findings, quantitative SWOT analysis is a simple, versatile, repeatable and intuitive method for reintroduction area and site selection. The method also provides a valuable mechanism for evaluating and prioritizing management actions relative to their efficiency and effectiveness for achieving reintroduction objectives.