VIRUS DISEASES OF CACAO IN WEST AFRICA

Increasing the number of Pseudococcus njalensis per test plant increased the infection rate with cacao virus 1A and 1M to 95 % with twenty-five insects. Young leaves with the red vein-banding symptoms were better sources of virus than mature leaves, and there was evidence of virus localization in the plant. It was estimated that Ps. njalensis nymphs took about 16 min. to penetrate plant tissues with their stylets.
Infection rates increased with time of test feeding up to 50 min. The virus was non-persistent in the feeding insect, but persisted up to 36 hr. in insects starved after the infection feed. Starvation before the infection feed increased the infection rate with infection feeds up to 10 hrs., after which the infection rate with pre-starved insects declined to the level attained by unstarved insects.     

VIRUS DISEASES OF CACAO IN WEST AFRICA

Of the tested plants which are indigenous to West Africa, three species in the Bombacaceae and four in the Steruliaceae are susceptible to one or more of four viruses from cacao, three occurring in the Gold Coast and one in Nigeria. These species are less affected than cacao by the viruses; some show transient leaf symptoms and others are symptomless carriers. The development of spines on the stems of Ceiba pentandra seedlings is suppressed by infection with virus 1 A.
In general, the indigenous species are more difficult to infect than cacao, and mealybugs do not become infective as readily when feeding on them as when feeding on infected cacao. The availability of the viruses to vectors seems to be correlated with severity of symptoms, and transmission from infected plants to cacao becomes less frequent with increasing duration of infection.
Ceiba pentandra trees were found naturally infected in the Gold Coast and Nigeria. In the Western Province of the Gold Coast, Cola chlamydantha trees in cacao farms and forests were naturally infected with viruses apparently identical with those causing swollen shoot of cacao there.
There is little doubt that C. chlamydantha trees are an important source of virus for cacao trees. Whenever possible these and other alternative hosts growing near to cacao should be destroyed.     

VIRUS DISEASES OF CACAO IN WEST AFRICA VIII. THE SEARCH FOR VIRUS-RESISTANT CACAO

The methods used and the results of 10 years' search for cacao resistant to swollen-shoot disease are described. Selection among the trees surviving in farms devastated by this virus disease led to the discovery of mild virus strains which can protect trees against virulent strains.
When tested by graft inoculation with virulent virus, none of the selections showed any immunity or resistance save that conferred by previous mild-strain infection. A low degree of tolerance was found in some selections.
Local selections and a range of new introductions were tested by mealybug infection, and only types from the Upper Amazon region of Ecuador were consistently resistant to infection. This genetical resistance seems to be strongest in cacao from the Nanay peninsula, near Iquitos.     

STUDIES IN RUBUS VIRUS DISEASES I. A LATENT VIRUS OF NORFOLK GIANT RASPBERRY

A selection of Norfolk Giant raspberry is infected with a virus transmissible by Amphorophora rubi Kalt. after short feeding periods on infected plants and persisting for at least 18 1/2 hr. in the aphid. This virus is identified with one which is carried without symptoms by Norfolk Giant and Baumforth's Seedling B, and causes necrosis on Rubus henryi and mosaic symptoms on R. saxatilis , American black raspberry R. occidentalis (var. Cumberland) and the red raspberry varieties Chartham, Mailing Landmark and St Walfried. The virus is present in some commercial stocks of Baumforth's Seedling B, Burnetholm Seedling, and the Mailing varieties Enterprise, Notable and Promise. The name raspberry leaf mottle is proposed.     

THE SPREAD OF BEET YELLOWS AND BEET MOSAIC VIRUSES IN THE SUGAR-BEET ROOT CROP I. FIELD OBSERVATIONS ON THE VIRUS DISEASES OF SUGAR BEET AND THEIR VECTORS MYZUS PERSICAE SULZ. AND APHIS FABAE KOCH

A survey of aphids and virus diseases of sugar-beet root crops in eastern England was made between 1940 and 1948. Prior to 1943 the observations were made on fertilizer experiments; from 1943 onwards they were made on commercial fields selected for position in relation to beet and mangold seed crops. The incidence of beet yellows increased with increasing numbers of Myzus persicae , but not of Aphis fabae. The relation with M. persicae was sufficiently close to suggest that it is the most important, possibly the only important, vector of beet yellows virus. Beet mosaic virus also increased with increasing numbers of M. persicae , but the relation was not close enough to exclude the possibility of other vectors.
Numbers of A. fabae on sugar beet were slightly, but consistently, depressed by the use of salt as a fertilizer. Other fertilizers had variable effects. Neither aphids nor virus are likely to be greatly affected by fertilizers.
Beet yellows is most prevalent in areas where seed crops are grown, but within these areas nearness to individual seed crops did not appear to increase its incidence. M. persicae were more numerous on sugar beet in seed-crop areas than elsewhere, and this alone might account for the prevalence of yellows. Beet mosaic virus is more closely associated with seed crops than is beet yellows. It is most prevalent near to seed crops within the seed-crop areas.     

CONSULTING KU JLOPLE: SOME HISTORIES OF ORACLES IN WEST AFRICA

Historical comparison of oracles in west Africa, mainly during the nineteenth century, shows how divination practices may alter. In the cases explored here, reputation, range of users, economic growth, and political influence interacted as these oracles developed; some at sites with internal and overseas trade access became complex, large-scale operations. But by about 1900, colonialists felt threatened by their secular and their spiritual power and smashed them physically, though not spiritually. Contextualized comparison shows that the many people who were involved as oracle organizers and supplicants must have had different motivations and interests. Some methodological implications of the findings are considered. As in many powerful secular organizations, access to insider knowledge was blocked, but oracular reputation was important, and the oracles had competitors. Success derived partly from collecting intelligence, with simultaneous advertisement that emphasized the mysterious power of their operations.     

STRUCTURE AND DEVELOPMENT OF VIRUSES OBSERVED IN THE ELECTRON MICROSCOPE : IV. VIRUSES OF THE RI-APC GROUP

Representative viruses of the RI-APC group were observed with the electron microscope in thin sections of infected HeLa cells. The viral particles varied in density, were approximately 60 mµ in diameter and had a center to center spacing when close packed of about 65 mµ. Many of the less dense particles exhibited an internal body averaging 24 mµ in diameter. It was suggested that within the nucleus the virus differentiated from dense granular and reticular material and formed crystals. Disintegration of the crystals and disruption of the nuclear membrane with release of virus into the cytoplasm appeared to occur at any stage. No evidence to suggest development of the virus in the cytoplasm was obtained. It was possible to deduce the structure of the viral crystal from the electron micrographs. The viral particles are packed in a cubic body—centered lattice. Correlative histochemical observations in the light microscope which are now in progress revealed that the crystals and non-crystalline aggregates of virus were strongly Feulgen-positive.     

THE INFLUENCE OF PLANTING DATE AND MANURING ON THE INCIDENCE OF VIRUS DISEASES IN POTATO CROPS

Field experiments with Majestic potatoes were made over six years at Rothamsted to test the effects of varying date of planting and manuring on the yield of tubers and the incidence of the aphid-transmitted leaf roll and Y (rugose mosaic) viruses. Yield was increased by early planting, and by all the manures, especially dung. Early planting also usually increased the incidence of virus disease. Different manures had different effects on disease incidence; the average results from all comparisons showed the largest increase in incidence of both viruses from the use of dung; sulphate of ammonia increased the incidence of leaf roll, and muriate of potash that of rugose mosaic. Counts in two years showed that aphid populations were highest on the earlier planted potatoes, and were increased by dung, sulphate of ammonia and superphosphate, but were reduced by muriate of potash.     

SUGAR-BEET YELLOWS: FURTHER STUDIES ON VIRUSES AND VIRUS STRAINS AND THEIR DISTRIBUTION IN EAST ANGLIA, 1958-59

Experiments have shown that, as in the years 1955-57, two yellowing viruses, beet yellows virus (SBYV) and sugar-beet mild yellowing virus (SBMYV), were present in commercial sugar-beet crops in East Anglia in 1958 and 1959. The evidence that they are not closely related viruses has been confirmed. In both years the prevalence of the two viruses was estimated by aphid transmissions from yellowed sugar-beet leaves to healthy sugar beet and Chenopodium capitatum seedlings in the glasshouse, and in 1959 additionally by examination of symptoms on field plants. SBMYV was more common than SBYV over the whole region in 1958, but in 1959 SBYV was slightly more prevalent than SBMYV. In both years SBYV was found more often in the southern than in the northern parts of the region. The results described in this paper suggest that breeding for tolerance to SBMYV may be at least as important economically in East Anglia as breeding for tolerance to SBYV. A wide range of SBYV strains was present in East Anglia in 1959, most of the strains being those which caused severe symptoms in sugar beet and C. capitatum.     

北京地区两种虫媒病毒的监测

1984年我们对北京地区的乙型脑炎病毒和M14病毒进行了监测,观察到三带喙库蚊季节消长高峰在8月中旬,较发病率较高的1980年和1981年晚3周左右:乙型脑炎病毒检出率(批)为16.1％,最低现场感染率为1:303,检出高峰在8月中旬(44.0％),较1981年晚2周以上;到8月初才发现所感染的猪,明显晚于1980年和1981年,受上述众因素的影响,本年度本市乙型脑炎发病率仍较低(0.8/10万),在M14病毒的监测中,发现三带喙库蚊环病毒M14病毒检出率为9.32％,最低现场感染率为1:526,当年最高检出率(32％)和最低现场感染率高峰(1:156),高峰出现在8月30日,与乙脑病毒自然感染率出现的高蜂相一致;猪感染M14病毒与感染乙脑病毒的时间基本相同,表明这两种病毒在自然界传播中不存在明显的互相干扰关系,乙脑低流行年的出现并未受到M14病毒的影响。