The Evolutionary History and Genetic Diversity of Kinkajous, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Potos flavus</Emphasis> (Carnivora,Procyonidae)

The genus Potos (Procyonidae) is currently recognized as a monotypic genus comprising the single species Potos flavus, the kinkajou. Kinkajous are widely distributed throughout forested habitats of tropical Central and South America, extending from eastern Brazil across central Bolivia, eastern Peru, northern Ecuador, Guianas, Suriname, Venezuela, Colombia, and then through Central America and into western Mexico. The taxonomic history of the species is complex, with seven or eight subspecies historically recognized to acknowledge the phenotypic variation among populations. In this study, the systematics and the evolutionary history of Potos flavus were investigated based on the mitochondrial gene cytochrome b, including specimens from a large range of localities, covering most of the distribution of the species, from central Middle America (Costa Rica and Panama) through South America (Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Brazil, Guyana, and French Guiana). Analyses of 30 Potos flavus sequences showed 27 haplotypes that were grouped in five main clades in all phylogenetic analyses. These clades suggested a high geographic structure with specimens from (1) Costa Rica, (2) Guianas and North Brazil, (3) North Peru, (4) Ecuador and Panama, (5a) interfluves Branco-Negro rivers in the Brazilian Amazon, (5b) Eastern Atlantic Forest, (5c) Amazonian lowlands east Negro river including Bolivia, Peru, and West Brazil. Each of these clades differs from 4.5 % to 9.3 % in their genetic distance estimates, which suggests that the specific status of some of these lineages should be reconsidered. Divergence dating and biogeographic analysis suggested that crown Potos diversified in the Miocene-Pliocene in South America, and geographic barriers, such as savannas and rivers, may have played a significant role in the kinkajou diversification.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Quinua</Emphasis> and Relatives (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Chenopodium</Emphasis> sect.<Emphasis Type="Italic">Chenopodium</Emphasis> subsect.<Emphasis Type="Italic">Celluloid</Emphasis>)

Traditionally viewed as an Andean grain crop,Chenopodium quinoa Willd. includes domesticated populations that are not Andean, and Andean populations that are not domesticated. Comparative analysis of leaf morphology and allozyme frequencies have demonstrated that Andean populations, both domesticated(quinua) and free-living(ajara), represent an exceptionally homogeneous unit that is well differentiated from allied domesticates of coastal Chile(quingua) and freeliving populations of the Argentine lowlands(C. hircinum). This pattern of relationships indicates that Andean populations represent a monophyletic crop/weed system that has possibly developed through cyclic differentiation (natural vs. human selection) and introgressive hybridization. Relative levels of variation suggest that this complex originated in the southern Andes, possibly from wild types allied withC. hircinum, with subsequent dispersal north to Colombia and south to the Chilean coast. Coastal populations were apparently isolated from post-dispersal differentiation and homogenization that occurred in the Andes. Other data point toward a center of origin in the northern Andes with secondary centers of genetic diversity subsequently developing in the southern Andes and the plains of Argentina. Comparative linkage of South American taxa, all tetraploid, with North American tetraploids of the subsection will eventually clarify this problem. While the possibility of a direct phyletic connection betweenC. quinoa and the Mexican domesticate(C. berlandieri subsp. nuttalliae,) cannot be excluded, available evidence indicates that the latter represents an autonomous lineage that is associated with the basal tetraploid, C. b. subsp.berlandieri, through var.sinuatum, whereas South American taxa show possible affinities to either var. zschackei or var.berlandieri. An extinct domesticate of eastern North America,C. b. subsp.jonesianum, represents either another instance of independent domestication, possibly from subsp. b. var.zschackei, or a northeastern outlier of subsp.nuttalliae.     

Species tree phylogeny,character evolution,and biogeography of the Patagonian genus <Emphasis Type="Italic">Anarthrophyllum</Emphasis> Benth. (Fabaceae)

Geologic events promoting the aridization of southern South America contributed to lineage divergences and species differentiation through geographic (allopatric divergence) and biotic and abiotic factors (ecological divergence). For the genus Anarthrophyllum, which is distributed in arid and semi-arid regions of Patagonia, we assessed how these factors affected species diversification and reconstructed its possible biogeographic history in South American arid environments. Sequences were obtained from two molecular markers: the ITS nuclear region and the trnS-trnG plastid region. Using Parsimony, Maximum likelihood and Bayesian inference individual gene trees were reconstructed, and a species tree was obtained using multi-species coalescent analysis. Divergence times among species were estimated using secondary calibrations. Flexible Bayesian models and stochastic character mapping were used to elucidate ancestral geographic distributions and the evolution of the floral and vegetative phenotypes in the genus. Gene trees and species tree analyses strongly support Anarthrophyllum as monophyletic; all analyses consistently retrieved three well-supported main clades: High Andean Clade, Patagonian Clade 1, and Patagonian Clade 2. Main diversification events occurred concomitant with the Andean uplift and steppe aridization; the Andean mountain range possibly acted as a species barrier for the High Andean Clade. Vegetative traits showed adaptations to harsh climates in some clades, while pollinator-related floral features were associated with independent diversification in bee- and bird-pollinated clades within both Patagonian Clades. In conclusion, evolutionary and biogeographic history of Anarthrophyllum resulted from the action of ecological, historical, and geographic factors that acted either alternatively or simultaneously.     

A New Subspecies of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Saguinus fuscicollis</Emphasis> (Primates,Callitrichidae)

Saddleback tamarins (Saguinus fuscicollis, S. melanoleucus, and S. tripartitus) occur in the upper Amazon, west of the rios Madeira and Mamoré–Guaporé to the Andes. They currently comprise 13 species and subspecies in Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru. Here we report on a previously undescribed subspecies of Saguinus fuscicollis from the interfluvium of the lower rios Madeira and Purus in the central Amazon of Brazil. It is a distinct form with a very pronounced mottling on the back giving the appearance of a saddle, a characteristic shared by the 3 species, and the reason for their collective common name. The lack of a white superciliary chevron and its highly mottled ochraceous-dark brown to black saddle that extends from the scapular region to the base of the tail distinguish the new taxon from Saguinus fuscicollis weddelli. The latter characteristic also distinguishes it from another saddleback tamarin (Saguinus fuscicollis ssp.) that has been reported immediately to the south of its range in the same interfluvium. We compare pelage coloration, external characters and craniometric measurements with its geographically closest relatives, Saguinus fuscicollis weddelli and S. f. avilapiresi, and indicate its probable geographic distribution in a small area between the rios Madeira and Purus, just south of the Rio Amazonas.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Tamarix</Emphasis> (Tamaricaceae) hybrids: the dominant invasive genotype in southern Africa

Hybridization is regarded as a rapid mechanism for increasing genetic variation that can potentially enhance invasiveness. Tamarix hybrids appear to be the dominant genotypes in their invasions. Exotic Tamarix are declared invasive in South Africa and the exotic T. chinensis and T. ramosissima are known to hybridize between themselves, and with the indigenous T. usneoides. However, until now, it was not known which species or hybrid is the most prevalent in the invasion. With a biocontrol programme being considered as a way of suppressing the alien Tamarix populations, it is important to document the population genetic dynamics of all species in the region. This investigation sought to identify Tamarix species in southern Africa and their hybrids, describe their population structure, and reveal the geographic origin of the invasive species. To achieve this, nuclear Internal Transcribed Spacer (ITS) sequence data and the multilocus Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphisms (AFLPs) markers were used. Phylogenetic analysis and population genetic structure confirmed the presence of three species in South Africa (T. chinensis, T. ramosissima and T. usneoides) with their hybrids. The indigenous T. usneoides is clearly genetically distant from the alien species T. chinensis and T. ramosissima. Interestingly, the Tamarix infestation in South Africa is dominated (64.7 %) by hybrids between T. chinensis and T. ramosissima. The exotic species match their counterparts from their places of origin in Eurasia, as well as those forming part of the invasion in the US.     

Karyologic diversification and phylogenetic relationships of the genus<Emphasis Type="Italic">Thalpomys</Emphasis> (Rodentia,Sigmodontinae)

We describe the karyotype ofThalpomys species, from different Brazilian localities of the Cerrado.Thalpomys cerradensis Herskovitz, 1990 showed 2n=36, FN=34 andT. lasiotis Thomas, 1916 2n=38, FN=38. Comparisons of G-band karyotypes showed evident inter-specific homologies indicating that their chromosome complements could be derived from one another by two presumed rearrangements. Both species showed pericentromeric C-band regions in almost all chromosomes but a comparison with CMA3/DA/DAPI staining indicated that the molecular content of heterochromatic regions was different.T. lasiotis specimens from two different localities differed in the morphology of the X chromosome due to the presence of a short heterochromatic arm. These chromosome types are apparently fixed in each population rather than maintained as a polymorphic variation. Phylogenetic analyses supported the monophyly of the genusThalpomys but was not capable of elucidating its phylogenetic relationship to other Akodontini rodents. These analyses also showed inter-individual variation inT. lasiotis, even within a given population. Phylogenetic analyses placedT. lasiotis specimens with different karyotypes in different monophyletic branches. Molecular and karyologic data confirmed the identity of the genusThalpomys.     

A new species and a new combination in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Ctenitis</Emphasis> (Dryopteridaceae) from South America

We describe a new species and propose a new combination of Ctenitis from South America. The new species is from Peru. We named it Ctenitis megalastriformis due to the resemblance to Megalastrum. The new combination corresponds to the species known until now as C. pedicellata. This species should be called C. nervata, based on the older name Aspidium nervatum. Lectotypes are designated for A. pedicellatum and Dryopteris indecora, both considered here to be synonyms of C. nervata.     

Identification and genetic diversity of two invasive <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pissodes</Emphasis> spp. Germar (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) in their introduced range in the southern hemisphere

During the first half of the twentieth century, two accidental cases of introduction of Pissodes weevils were recorded from the southern hemisphere. The weevils in South Africa were identified as the deodar weevil (Pissodes nemorensis) and those in South America as the small banded pine weevil (Pissodes castaneus). Wide distribution of the two species in their invasive range, general difficulty in identifying some Pissodes spp., and the varying feeding and breeding behaviours of the species in South Africa has necessitated better evidence of species identity and genetic diversity of both species and population structure of the species in South Africa. Barcoding and the Jerry-to-Pat region of the COI gene were investigated. Morphometric data of the South African species was analysed. Our results confirmed the introduction of only one Pissodes species of North American origin to South Africa. However, this species is not P. nemorensis, but an unrecognized species of the P. strobi complex or a hybrid between P. strobi and P. nemorensis. Only P. castaneus, of European origin, was identified from South America. We identified ten mitochondrial DNA haplotypes from South Africa with evidence of moderate genetic structure among geographic populations. Terminal leader and bole-feeding weevils did not differ at the COI locus. A single haplotype was identified from populations of P. castaneus in South America. Results of the present study will have implications on quarantine, research and management of these insect species.     

Genetic structure of cultivated <Emphasis Type="Italic">Zanthoxylum</Emphasis> species investigated with SSR markers

Zanthoxylum is an economically and ecologically important genus of the Rutaceae family, of which Z. bungeanum and Z. armatum have a long history of cultivation in China. However, how the natural processes such as selection and drift and agriculture practices have influenced the genetic variation of cultivated Zanthoxylum species during long-term domestication remains elusive. Herein, we determined the population genetic structure of current widely cultivated Zanthoxylum species, Z. bungeanum and Z. armatum. Microsatellite markers revealed a high level of genetic variation and significant genetic differentiation for both species despite Z. bungeanum showed higher genetic diversity than Z. armatum. AMOVA indicated that most of the genetic variation exists within individuals rather than among provenances for both species. Population structure analyses generated three distinct groups within the entire accessions. All Z. bungeanum accessions were distinguished into two major geographic groups, north and south groups, with Qinling Mountains as the main geographic barrier to gene flow while a significant genetic differentiation was observed between cultivated and wild Z. armatum accessions. Mantel test of Z. bungeanum displayed a significant correlation between genetic and geographic distances within each inferred group but no correlation between genetic and geographic distance was observed when comparing genetic and geographic distances focusing only on pairwise of north vs. south provenances, ruling out the hypothesis that gene flow between north and south provenances followed an isolation-by-distance model. Our research provided a fundamental genetic profile that will improve the conservation and responsible exploitation of the extant germplasm of Zanthoxylum.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Ceriporiopsis kunmingensis</Emphasis> sp. nov. (Polyporales,Basidiomycota) evidenced by morphological characters and phylogenetic analysis

A new poroid wood-inhabiting fungal species, Ceriporiopsis kunmingensis sp. nov., is proposed based on morphological and molecular characters. The species is characterized by resupinate basidiocarps with pale cinnamon-buff to ochreous color when dry; generative hyphae unbranched and subparallel along the tubes; presence of hyphal ends; allantoid basidiospores, 4.5–5 × 1.5–2 μm. The internal transcribed spacer (ITS) and large subunit (LSU) regions of nuclear ribosomal RNA gene sequences of the studied samples were generated, and phylogenetic analyses were performed with maximum likelihood, maximum parsimony, and Bayesian inference methods. The phylogenetic analysis based on molecular data of ITS?+?nLSU sequences showed that C. kunmingensis belonged to the phlebioid clade, formed a monophyletic lineage with a strong support (100% BS, 100% BP, 1.00 BPP), and was closely related to Phlebia aurea, and then grouped with P. livida and P. subserialis. Both morphological and molecular characters confirmed the placement of the new species in Ceriporiopsis.     

A New Synonym and New Records of South-American Eumastacidae (Caelifera: Orthoptera: Eumastacoidea)

Temnomastax spielmanni Olivier, 2014 n. syn. is proposed as new synonym of Eumastacops nemorivaga Rehn & Rehn, 1942. New distribution records in Peru and Colombia are provided for the following four species: Eumastax nigrovittata Descamps, 1979; Paramastax nigra (Scudder, 1875); Pseudomastax nigroplagiata Descamps, 1970; and Pseudomastax personata (Bolívar, 1881). New information on the distribution of Paramastax flavovittata Descamps, 1973 and E. nemorivaga is added, resulting in the expansion of the geographic distribution. Photographs of all studied species are provided.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Anoplodiscus</Emphasis> Sonsino, 1890 (Monogenea: Anoplodiscidae): a new Australian species,and the first African record from South African hosts

Species of Anoplodiscus Sonsino, 1890 were previously only known from host members of Sparidae. A new species, Anoplodiscus hutsonae n. sp. is proposed for museum specimens originally collected from species of Scolopsis Cuvier (Nemipteridae) off Heron Island and Lizard Island, Australia. Additionally, Anoplodiscus tai Ogawa, 1994 is synonymised with Anoplodiscus cirrusspiralis Roubal, Armitage & Rohde, 1983 due to a lack of support for differential characters, and Anoplodiscus richiardii is considered a species inquirenda. Anoplodiscus cirrusspiralis causes visible lesions on the skin and fins of its host, and may also contribute to poor food conversion rates in sparid aquaculture. Anoplodiscus cirrusspiralis has been recorded from cultured sparids in Australia, Japan, South Africa, and South Korea, and was implicated as a disease agent in fish from the former two countries. However, the discovery of A. cirrusspiralis on Chrysoblephus gibbiceps (Valenciennes), Ch. laticeps (Valenciennes) and Cymatoceps nasutus (Castelnau) in South Africa, ?Pagrus major (Temminck & Schlegel) in South Korea, and P. auratus (Forster) in Australia, New Zealand and Japan suggests that this species may have a wide distribution and low host-specificity within the Sparidae. In South Africa, A. cirrusspiralis was first encountered on a morbid C. nasutus and Ch. gibbiceps from two public aquaria in 2009 (Two Oceans Aquarium, Cape Town and uShaka Sea World, Durban, respectively). Additional material was collected from C. laticeps kept at an abalone farm in Hermanus that originated from Struisbaai on the South African south coast. Anoplodiscus cirrusspiralis is redescribed from the South African specimens. This is the first record of a member of Anoplodiscidae Tagliani, 1912 from Africa.     

On the morphology of the early life history stages of lanternfish genus <Emphasis Type="Italic">Triphoturus</Emphasis> (Myctophidae) and distribution of <Emphasis Type="Italic">T. oculeum</Emphasis> larvae in southeastern waters of the Pacific Ocean

Results of comparative analysis of specific features of morphology of larval lanternfishes of the Indo-Pacific genus Triphoturus based on materials from the southeastern part of the Pacific Ocean, northwestern Pacific, South China Sea, and the western part of the Indian Ocean, as well as on published data, are provided. Noticeable differences are shown in specific features of pigmentation of larval T. nigrescens (sensu Hulley, 1986) from different parts of the vast range of this species, that may be accounted for by its individual and/or geographic variation and by the collective pattern of this taxon. It is stated that it is necessary to use genetic data for the verification of the taxonomic status of the representatives of the genus. Morphological evidence in favor of the species isolation of T. oculeum and T. microchir based on larval materials is presented. The presence of three morphologically different forms of larval Triphoturus from the eastern Pacific differing in the pattern of body pigmentation that are identified with three nominal species of the genus Triphoturus—T. nigrescens, T. mexicanus, and T. oculeum—is confirmed. The study of specific features of distribution of larvae of these species in southeastern waters of the Pacific Ocean based on our own and published materials revealed the presence of larval T. mexicanus and T. oculeum off Peru, which is supported by data on the presence of adult individuals of both species here.     

On Frasnian ammonoids of the New Siberian Islands

Ammonoids from the basal beds of the Nerpalakh Formation (Lower Frasnian) of Belkovsky Island (New Siberian Archipelago) are systematically studied. Taxonomically, the assemblage studied (Manticoceras insulare sp. nov., Tornoceras typum (Sandberger, 1851), and T. contractum Glenister, 1958) is similar to the Early Frasnian ammonoid assemblage of South Timan, from which its is distinguished by the absence of the genera Timanites and Komioceras. The same beds contain conodonts of the Palmatolepis transitans Zone (= MN 4 Zone of the Montagne Noire standard succession), which allow the correlation of the beds studied with the Timanites keyserlingi and Komioceras stuckenbergi ammonoid zones of South Timan. The Early Frasnian ammonoids could supposedly have entered the region of the New Siberian Archipelago from the southwest at the time of a major transgression, which facilitated the distribution of the genera Manticoceras and Tornoceras. A new species of the genus Manticoceras is described.     

Two new species of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Gentianella</Emphasis> (Gentianaceae) from Peru

Two new species of Gentianella (Gentianaceae, Gentianeae, Swertiinae), G. grantii and G. wayqecha, are described from Departamento Cusco, Peru. These two species differ from other Peruvian species of Gentianella in a combination of stems 10–100 cm long; no rosette of basal leaves; cauline leaves 10–75 mm long; flowers in thyrses; and corollas 14–26 mm long, campanulate, and adaxially glabrous. The leaves of G. grantii consist of an appressed pseudopetiole and a spreading, narrowly elliptic-oblong to linear blade; the corollas are lavender; and the corolla lobes are 0.6–0.7× as long as the tube. Gentianella grantii is similar to G. lythroides, of Bolivia, but differs in having more closely spaced leaves and less deeply lobed corollas. The leaves of G. wayqecha are sessile, lanceolate to ovate; the corollas are rose-violet; and the corolla lobes are 0.75–1.35× as long as the tube. Gentianella wayqecha is similar to G. rapunculoides, of Colombia and Ecuador, and G. ruizii, of Peru, but differs from both in its adaxially glabrous corollas and from G. rapunculoides in its less deeply lobed corollas. Both G. grantii and G. wayqecha grow in moist habitats near tree line, and are known only from a area northeast of the city of Cusco.     

Relationships within <Emphasis Type="Italic">Capitotricha bicolor</Emphasis> (Lachnaceae,Ascomycota) as inferred from ITS rDNA sequences,including some notes on the <Emphasis Type="Italic">Brunnipila</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Erioscyphella</Emphasis> clades

DNA sequences of Capitotricha bicolor from Quercus, Fagus sylvatica, Alnus alnobetula, and Nothofagus, and C. rubi from Rubus idaeus were obtained from apothecia to establish whether specimens from different hosts belong to separate species. The obtained ITS1–5.8S–ITS2 rDNA sequences were examined with Bayesian and parsimony phylogenetic analyses. Intra- and interspecific variation was also investigated based on molecular distances in the ITS region. The phylogenetic analyses supported the specific distinctness of Capitotricha rubi and the Capitotricha from Nothofagus, but also suggest specific distinctness between samples from Quercus, Fagus, and Alnus. The interspecific distances were larger than intraspecific distances for all examined units. The smallest distance was found between the “Alnus alnobetula” and “Fagus sylvatica” units. Two new sequences of Brunnipila are published. Capitotricha, Lachnum, and Erioscyphella are compared to each other based on hair and excipulum characteristics.     

Cytogenetic evidences on the evolutionary relationships between the tetraploids of the section <Emphasis Type="Italic">Rhizomatosae</Emphasis> and related diploid species (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Arachis</Emphasis>, Leguminosae)

Rhizomatosae is a taxonomic section of the South American genus Arachis, whose diagnostic character is the presence of rhizomes in all its species. This section is of particular evolutionary interest because it has three polyploid (A. pseudovillosa, A. nitida and A. glabrata, 2n?=?4x?=?40) and only one diploid (A. burkartii, 2n?=?2x?=?20) species. The phylogenetic relationships of these species as well as the polyploidy nature and the origin of the tetraploids are still controversial. The present study provides an exhaustive analysis of the karyotypes of all rhizomatous species and six closely related diploid species of the sections Erectoides and Procumbentes by cytogenetic mapping of DAPI/CMA heterochromatin bands and 5S and 18–26S rDNA loci. Chromosome banding showed variation in the DAPI heterochromatin distribution pattern, which, together with the number and distribution of rDNA loci, allowed the characterization of all species studied here. The bulk of chromosomal markers suggest that the three rhizomatous tetraploid species constitute a natural group and may have at least one common diploid ancestor. The cytogenetic data of the diploid species analyzed evidenced that the only rhizomatous diploid species—A. burkartii—has a karyotype pattern different from those of the rhizomatous tetraploids, showing that it is not likely the genome donor of the tetraploids and the non-monophyletic nature of the section Rhizomatosae. Thus, the tetraploid species should be excluded from the R genome, which should remain exclusively for A. burkartii. Instead, the karyotype features of these tetraploids are compatible with those of different species of the sections Erectoides and Procumbentes (E genome species), suggesting the hypothesis of multiple origins of these tetraploids. In addition, the polyploid nature and the group of diploid species closer to the tetraploids are discussed.