Selected Species of the Genus Phellinus – Chemical Composition,Biological Activity,and Medicinal Applications

This study presents the current knowledge on chemical composition, biological activity, and possible medicinal applications of Phellinus igniarius, Phellinus pini, Phellinus pomaceus, and Phellinus robustus. These inedible arboreal species are phytopathogens that cause the enzymatic decomposition of wood. These species belong to the medicinal mushrooms and have been known for centuries in the traditional medicine of the Far East. They have been used as an effective remedy for stomach and intestinal ailments, diarrhea, and hemorrhages. Mycochemical studies have proved the presence of polysaccharides, phenolic compounds, and terpenoids. These compounds show biological activities such as anticancer, antioxidant, antiangiogenic, and antiviral. Research studies conducted using modern analytical methods have advanced the knowledge on the potential therapeutic use of compounds isolated not only from the fruiting bodies but also from biomass obtained with in vitro biotechnological methods.     

Phellinus castanopsidis sp. nov. (Hymenochaetaceae) from southern China, with preliminary phylogeny based on rDNA sequences

Phellinus castanopsidis sp. nov. is described and illustrated from southern China. This species is characterized by resupinate, annual basidiomata, a dimitic hyphal system, hooked hymenial setae, and ovoid to broadly ellipsoid basidiospores that are colorless, thick-walled, weakly dextrinoid, and moderately cyanophilous. Most of these morphological features are shared by Fomitiporia ellipsoidea, P. gabonensis, and P. caribaeo-quercicolus, although in the two latter species, the basidiospores are not dextrinoid. In a phylogenetic perspective, parsimony inferences based on LSU and ITS DNA sequence data show that these four species are closely related, forming a monophyletic clade. Furthermore, this clade is more closely related to the Phellinus ignarius clade (Phellinus s.s.) than to the Fomitiporia clade. Hence, F. ellipsoidea is transferred to Phellinus, and a new combination P. ellipsoideus is proposed also.     

Polysaccharides from Phellinus linteus inhibit cell growth and invasion and induce apoptosis in HepG2 human hepatocellular carcinoma cells

It has been demonstrated that the medicinal mushroom Phellinus linteus (PL), which consists mainly of polysaccharides, possesses antitumor and immunomodulatory properties in vivo and in vitro. The mechanism, however, by which PL inhibits growth and invasive behavior of HepG2 cells remains poorly understood. Here we demonstrated that PL inhibited proliferation and colony formation of HepG2 and that the growth inhibition of HepG2 cells was mediated by S-phase cell cycle arrest. PL also markedly inhibited cancer cell adhesion and invasion of the extracellular matrix. Additionally, we demonstrated that PL-induced apoptosis was associated with a reduction in B-cell lymphoma 2 levels and an increase in the release of cytochrome c. These results suggest that PL exerts a direct antitumor effect by initiating apoptosis and cell cycle blockade in HepG2 cells.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Phellinus</Emphasis> extracts inhibit migration and matrix metalloproteinase secretion in porcine coronary artery endothelial cells

Phellinus linteus is a fungus which is found primarily in tropical regions of the Americas, Africa, and Asia.P. linteus has been used in traditional medical practice for the treatment of arthritis, liver damage and cancer. Angiogenesis is a process that involves migration, proliferation and cell differentiation, as well as the formation of new capillary structures. The anti-angiogenic activities evidenced by natural compounds may actually be a critical effect for the inhibition of angiogenesis-dependent disease by these agents via the blockage of vascular development. This study assessed the effects of water extracts fromP. linteus (Phellinus extracts) on primary cultured porcine coronary artery endothelial cells (PCAECs).Phellinus extracts induced no changes in DNA synthesis or cell numbers, but inhibited the migration of PCAECs.Phellinus extracts also induced a reduction in the secretion of matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2) and MMP-9. Our results show that, in endothelial cells,Phellinus extracts may inhibit angiogenesis by reducing levels of MMP-2 and MMP-9 secretion.     

Styrylpyrones from the medicinal fungus Phellinus baumii and their antioxidant properties

During the search for natural antioxidants from basidiomycetes, a new styrylpyrone, baumin (1), was isolated from the cultivated medicinal fungus Phellinus baumii, together with known compounds, davallialactone (2), hispidin (3), hypholomine B (4), interfungin A (5), inoscavin A (6), and phelligridin D (7), which were previously isolated from the medicinal fungi Phellinus ignarius, Phellinus linteus, and Inonotus xeranticus. Their structures were elucidated by extensive spectroscopic methods. These compounds exhibited antioxidant activity through Fenton reaction inhibition via iron chelation and free radical scavenging.     

Maxent modeling for predicting the potential distribution of Sanghuang,an important group of medicinal fungi in China

The ability to identify the spatial distribution of economically important fungal species is crucial for understanding the environmental factors that affect them and for conservation management. A potentially valuable approach for this is maximum entropy (Maxent) spatial distribution modeling, which was applied here to map the potential distribution of three “Sanghuang” mushrooms in China, which include Phellinus baumii, Phellinus igniarius and Phellinus vaninii. Nineteen WorldClim bioclimatic variables, with corresponding altitude data, and 89 spatially well-dispersed species occurrence records were used in the modeling. The relative importance of the environmental variables was evaluated by Jackknife tests in the modeling analysis. The maximum entropy models obtained have high Area Under Receiver Operating Characteristic Curve (AUC) values: 0.956, 0.967 and 0.960, for P. baumii, P. igniarius and P. vaninii, respectively. The bioclimatic variable that most strongly affected distributions of P. baumii and P. vaninii was precipitation in the warmest quarter, while the mean temperature in the warmest quarter affected the distribution of P. igniarius most strongly. Overall, these models could provide valuable help in searching for the target species in areas where it is hitherto unknown, and be the reference of conservation measures for these medicinal fungal species.     

Current findings,future trends,and unsolved problems in studies of medicinal mushrooms

The target of the present review is to draw attention to many critically important unsolved problems in the future development of medicinal mushroom science in the twenty-first century. Special attention is paid to mushroom polysaccharides. Many, if not all, higher Basidiomycetes mushrooms contain biologically active polysaccharides in fruit bodies, cultured mycelium, and cultured broth. The data on mushroom polysaccharides are summarized for approximately 700 species of higher Hetero- and Homobasidiomycetes. The chemical structure of polysaccharides and its connection to antitumor activity, including possible ways of chemical modification, experimental testing and clinical use of antitumor or immunostimulating polysaccharides, and possible mechanisms of their biological action, are discussed. Numerous bioactive polysaccharides or polysaccharide–protein complexes from medicinal mushrooms are described that appear to enhance innate and cell-mediated immune responses and exhibit antitumor activities in animals and humans. Stimulation of host immune defense systems by bioactive polymers from medicinal mushrooms has significant effects on the maturation, differentiation, and proliferation of many kinds of immune cells in the host. Many of these mushroom polymers were reported previously to have immunotherapeutic properties by facilitating growth inhibition and destruction of tumor cells. While the mechanism of their antitumor actions is still not completely understood, stimulation and modulation of key host immune responses by these mushroom polymers appears central. Particularly and most importantly for modern medicine are polysaccharides with antitumor and immunostimulating properties. Several of the mushroom polysaccharide compounds have proceeded through phases I, II, and III clinical trials and are used extensively and successfully in Asia to treat various cancers and other diseases. A total of 126 medicinal functions are thought to be produced by medicinal mushrooms and fungi including antitumor, immunomodulating, antioxidant, radical scavenging, cardiovascular, antihypercholesterolemia, antiviral, antibacterial, antiparasitic, antifungal, detoxification, hepatoprotective, and antidiabetic effects.     

石斛属植物抗肿瘤活性成分及其机制研究进展

石斛属(Dendrobium)是兰科植物中的第二大属,很多石斛属植物是传统的名贵药用植物,具有良好的抗肿瘤作用。近年来石斛属植物抗肿瘤研究取得了显著进展,该文对石斛属植物的抗肿瘤主要活性成分、提取方法以及抗肿瘤机制等方面进行了归纳。石斛属植物抗肿瘤主要活性成分有多糖、生物碱、菲类、联苄类、芴酮类化合物等,抗肿瘤作用机制主要有增强机体免疫力、抑制癌细胞增殖、促进癌细胞凋亡、调控或阻滞癌细胞周期、抗氧化和清除自由基、改变信号通路传导等。在此基础上,进一步提出加强对石斛属植物抗癌方面的深入研究,挖掘更多的石斛属药用资源及其特征成分,深入解析它们的抗肿瘤作用机制,建立全面的评价体系,为开发石斛属植物抗癌药物提供理论基础,为合理、有效地利用石斛属资源提供科学依据。     

Phellinus setifer sp. nov. andP. acontextus, two noteworthy polypores from temperate areas of Japan, with notes on their allies

Type examination ofTrametes gilvoides revealed that it is distinct from the fungus hitherto known asPhellinus gilvoides in Japan.Phellinus setifer sp. nov. is described for the Japanese materials. This species is characterized by effusedreflexed basidiocarps with strigose pileus surface, often dentate dissepiments, subulate setae, and cylindrical basidiospores.Phellinus acontextus, known only from the type material collected in Nepal, is newly reported from Japan. This species is characterized by sessile and often pendent basidiocarps with multisulcate pileus surface, very thin context, lack of setae, and dark-colored basidiospores. Cultural characters of the two species are also described.Phellinus acifer comb. nov. is proposed.Phellinus contiguus andP. ferreus are newly reported from Japan.     

An improved method of DNA purification from secondary metabolites rich medicinal plants using certain chaotropic agents

The presented work describes good quality DNA isolation method from mature leaves of some medicinally important plant species, viz. Asparagus racemosus, Withania somnifera, Abrus precatorius, Commiphora wightii and Carissa carandas. These plants hold immense medicinal values due to presence of certain secondary metabolites like polyphenols, terpenes, flavonoids, alkaloids, gums, resins, etc. Although these metabolites are accountable for important medicinal properties and authorize these plants to precedence over others, the same compounds disappoint the researcher while isolating high quality DNA. To overcome this problem, we propose a simple method in which DNA is adroitly bounded to diatomaceous earth in a solution of different chaotropic agent and alienated from intrusive compounds. Presented method affirms that secondary products, along with polysaccharides and proteins, can be perceptibly reduced by using silica matrix along with chaotropic agents. The described method is fast, simple and highly reliable for the isolation of DNA from obstinate plant species.     

A new species of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Phellinus</Emphasis> sensu stricto associated with esca on grapevine in South Africa

A new species of Phellinus sensu stricto was isolated from diseased Vitis vinifera in the Northern Cape and Limpopo provinces of South Africa. Phellinus resupinatus is described here based on fruit body morphology, internal transcribed spacer (ITS) and large subunit (LSU) phylogenies. Phellinus resupinatus forms a well-supported clade closely related to Phellinus bicuspidatus, a species associated with white rot in oak trees in the United States. Morphologically, P. resupinatus is characterised by its resupinate fruit body shape, straight, ventricose hymenial setae and broadly ellipsoid hyaline basidiospores. It has been isolated from esca-diseased grapevines in the summer rainfall regions of South Africa and is found on the uppermost trunks of declining vines showing symptoms of white rot.     

中国药用真菌名录及部分名称的修订

近年来,我国对药用真菌的研究和利用越来越重视,相关报道逐年增加。针对有些种类鉴定有误、拉丁学名使用没有严格遵守最新国际植物命名法规、命名人缩写不规范等问题,作者系统考证了我国药用真菌的名称,共收录473种,对每种名称按新近的研究成果和最新命名法规(维也纳法规)进行了订正,对过去的错误报道或不存在的名称进行了修正,将曾报道的、但应作为其他种的同物异名者列在其正名之后,所有名称定名人的缩写全部按国际植物命名法规的要求加以规范化。每种名称之后还列举了该种的主要药用功能或价值,并引证了主要参考文献。     

兰科药用植物活性多糖研究进展

兰科(Orchidaceae)是有花植物中第二大科,目前已确认的兰科植物有736属28 000种,其中有82属343种可作药用。常见的兰科药用植物有铁皮石斛、天麻、白及和金线莲等。兰科药用植物功效成分主要为糖类、茋类、酚类、萜类、生物碱类、黄酮类和甾醇等,其中主要由甘露糖和葡萄糖等单糖构成的水溶性多糖是其重要活性成分之一,具有增强免疫力、抗肿瘤、抗氧化、降血糖和改善记忆等多种药理功能。对兰科药用植物活性多糖的结构、药理作用和生物合成等方面的研究进展进行了综述,并提出今后需要重点研究的方向,为进一步推动兰科药用植物资源保护及合理开发利用提供参考。     

Medicinal plants of Erute county,Lira district,Uganda with particular reference to their conservation

A medicinal plant study was carried out in eighteen parishes and 54 villages of Erute county, Lira district, Uganda. Parishes and villages were selected using stratified random sampling techniques. Questionnaires, interviews and discussions with the local people were used to obtain information on the names of the plants, their medicinal uses and conservation methods. The number of the medicinal plants species used was 180 belonging to 144 genera and 57 families of flowering plants. The major families recorded for medicinal purpose included Fabaceae (37 species), Asteraceae (26 species), Euphorbiaceae (eleven species), Vitaceae (eight species), Verbenaceae (seven species), Poaceae (six species), Solanaceae (five species), and Rubiaceae (four species). There is a need for putting in place measures to conserve these plants. Unfortunately, most of the healers or users were not interested in cultivation of the plants. The situation could worsen with the social changes and demand for land for agriculture in the district.     

Inhibition of cytochrome P450 isozymes in rat liver microsomes by polysaccharides derived from Phellinus linteus

Polysaccharides (0.5, 1 and 3 mg ml^–1) from cultured broth and mycelia of Phellinus linteus inhibited cytochrome P450 (CYP) 1A1, CYP 1A2, CYP 2B1, and CYP 2E1 activities in rat liver microsomes. The polysaccharides from the broth of Phellinus linteus grown with 5% (v/v) mulberry extract had highest inhibitory potency for CYP 1A1, 1A2 and 2B1 activities. The most potent inhibitor of CYP 2E1 activity were the polysaccharides from the broth of Phellinus linteusgrown with 10% (v/v) mulberry extract.     

Physiological activities and the active constituents of potentially medicinal plants used by wild chimpanzees of the Mahale mountains,Tanzania

Potential medicinal plants for wild chimpanzees have been studied in order to discover their physiologically active compounds. Tests of the physiological activity of 3 plant species—Vernonia amygdalina, Aspilia mossambicensis, andFicus exasperata—indicate that they contain a variety of active compounds. From one species,V. amygdalina, an antitumor agent and 2 possible antitumor promoters are identified. Furthermore, steroid glucosides were isolated as the bitter substances. These structurally new compounds are expected to exhibit a number of significant physiological activities. The chemical investigation of possible medicinal plants used by chimpanzees should be helpful in recovering naturally occurring compounds of medicinal significance for human use.     

Species names and metaphyly: a case study in Discodorididae (Mollusca, Gastropoda, Euthyneura, Nudibranchia, Doridina)

Dayrat, B. & Gosliner, T. M. (2005). Species names and metaphyly: a case study in Discodorididae (Mollusca, Gastropoda, Euthyneura, Nudibranchia, Doridina) —Zoologica Scripta, **, ***–***. Absence of resolution in phylogenetic trees, or metaphyly, is a common phenomenon. It mainly results from the fact that each data set has its own limit and can hardly be expected to reconstruct alone an entire hierarchy. Because metaphyly helps point out which regions of a tree merit further investigation, one should not avoid metaphyly but rather should try to detect it by addressing carefully node reliability. In this paper we explore the implication of metaphyly for species names. We present a phylogenetic analysis of Discodorididae (Mollusca, Gastropoda, Nudibranchia, Doridina), with an emphasis on relationships among species of Discodoris and its traditionally close ‘allies’ such as Peltodoris and Anisodoris. We demonstrate that some species must be transferred to different discodoridid subclades with which they share synapomorphies, but that many species form a metaphyletic group at the base of Discodorididae, and therefore cannot be placed in any taxon of genus level. We demonstrate that the current International Code of Zoological Nomenclature does not allow taxonomists to handle this situation because it requires selecting a taxon name of genus rank for every species binomial. Then we evaluate the results provided by new forms of species names, both in a rank‐based system, such as the current nomenclature, and a rank‐free system. All solutions considered would cause radical changes to the ‘spirit’ of the current ICZN (and, by extension, to the other current codes). In a rank‐free system of nomenclature, such as the PhyloCode, the best result is obtained with an epithet‐based form that does not mention supra‐specific relationships. Under this method, official species names would take the form ‘boholiensis Bergh, 1877’, although page numbers and letters can be added for uniqueness purposes. Taxonomists would then be free to add supra‐specific taxon names in ‘common’ species names, such as Discodorididae boholiensis Bergh, 1877 or simply Discodorididae boholiensis. Here we wish to stimulate discussion of a problem that we believe merits wide debate: absence of resolution in phylogenetic reconstruction and its impact on species nomenclature.     

Medicinal mushrooms as a source of antitumor and immunomodulating polysaccharides

The number of mushrooms on Earth is estimated at 140,000, yet maybe only 10% (approximately 14,000 named species) are known. Mushrooms comprise a vast and yet largely untapped source of powerful new pharmaceutical products. In particular, and most importantly for modern medicine, they represent an unlimited source of polysaccharides with antitumor and immunostimulating properties. Many, if not all, Basidiomycetes mushrooms contain biologically active polysaccharides in fruit bodies, cultured mycelium, culture broth. Data on mushroom polysaccharides have been collected from 651 species and 7 infraspecific taxa from 182 genera of higher Hetero- and Homobasidiomycetes. These polysaccharides are of different chemical composition, with most belonging to the group of beta-glucans; these have beta-(1-->3) linkages in the main chain of the glucan and additional beta-(1-->6) branch points that are needed for their antitumor action. High molecular weight glucans appear to be more effective than those of low molecular weight. Chemical modification is often carried out to improve the antitumor activity of polysaccharides and their clinical qualities (mostly water solubility). The main procedures used for chemical improvement are: Smith degradation (oxydo-reducto-hydrolysis), formolysis, and carboxymethylation. Most of the clinical evidence for antitumor activity comes from the commercial polysaccharides lentinan, PSK (krestin), and schizophyllan, but polysaccharides of some other promising medicinal mushroom species also show good results. Their activity is especially beneficial in clinics when used in conjunction with chemotherapy. Mushroom polysaccharides prevent oncogenesis, show direct antitumor activity against various allogeneic and syngeneic tumors, and prevent tumor metastasis. Polysaccharides from mushrooms do not attack cancer cells directly, but produce their antitumor effects by activating different immune responses in the host. The antitumor action of polysaccharides requires an intact T-cell component; their activity is mediated through a thymus-dependent immune mechanism. Practical application is dependent not only on biological properties, but also on biotechnological availability. The present review analyzes the pecularities of polysaccharides derived from fruiting bodies and cultured mycelium (the two main methods of biotechnological production today) in selected examples of medicinal mushrooms.     

Systematics is crucial for the traditional Chinese medicinal studies and industry of macrofungi

Recently, it has been indicated that systematics is of no value to the traditional Chinese medicinal studies and industry of macrofungi. As a fungal taxonomist, I use three genera of the most famous medicinal macrofungi, viz. Sanghuangporus, Ganoderma and Ophiocordyceps, as examples to rebut this opinion. Generally, the well-established systematics are helpful in using correct Latin names for fungal species in medicinal studies; furthermore, the resulting medicinal functions can be exactly matched to a particular species; finally, the particular species can be applied for permissions of utilization in traditional Chinese medicinal industry. Therefore, systematics is crucial for unlocking the potential of macrofungi as valuable resources to be developed in the traditional Chinese medicinal studies and industry, and should continue to be of interest to not just fungal taxonomists but also biochemists, pharmacists and businessmen.     

Recent advances in elucidating the biological properties of Withania somnifera and its potential role in health benefits

Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal (Solanaceae), also known as ashwagandha, is an important medicinal plant that is widely used as a home remedy for several diseases in the Indian subcontinent and other parts of the world. W. somnifera is a dietary supplement composed of various nutrients, polyphenols and alkaloids that have free radical scavenging capacity, as well as other chemical constituents that possess anti-inflammatory, antitumor, anti-stress, antioxidant, immunomodulatory, and rejuvenating properties. The mechanism of action for these properties are not fully understood. W. somnifera also appears to influence the endocrine, cardiopulmonary and central nervous systems. Toxicity studies reveal that W. somnifera can be used without side effects. The findings presented in this review are very encouraging and indicate that this herb should be studied more extensively to confirm these results and to reveal other potential therapeutic effects.