Human impact on the Holocene forest line in the Central Alps

Palaeoecological investigations of a small mire in Ötztal, Tyrol, Austria, situated about 50 m above the potential tree-line, indicates that human impact on the landscape started with burning of heath at approximately 5300 B.P. At about 4800 B.P. a weak increase in important apophytes may reflect the local presence of domestic animals. Between 4000 and 3500 B.P. a clear decline in pastoral activity occurred. From 3000 B.P. a strong increase in the representation of apophytes suggests local summer settlement, while in the interval 2600–2200 B.P. anthropogenic activity declined. After 2150 B.P. there was a marked increase in summer farm activity. Fresh information is presented on tree-line fluctuations during the Holocene: Pinus cembra forest ascended above the present potential tree-line by more than 50–100 m between 9000–8000 B.P., 6000–5500 B.P., and 3800–3000 B.P. A Betula maximum between 7000 and 5500 B.P. is probably due to succession in nearby avalanche tracks, as well as to a higher tree-line. Low humification and low loss-on-ignition values around 6000 B.P. may reflect the Frosnitz stadial (6900–6000 B.P.). The Rootmoos I stadial (5400 B.P.) and probably the early Sub-Atlantic stadial maximum (3000–2300) are also reflected in the physical properties of the peat profile.     

Climatic and environmental conditions from the Neolithic to the Bronze Age (7000–3000 BP) in the Iberian Peninsula assessed using small-mammal assemblages

We have analyzed the palaeoenvironment and palaeoclimate of the beginning of the Holocene in the Iberian Peninsula on the basis of the small-mammal assemblages from three sites within the geography of the Iberian Peninsula: Mirador (Sierra de Atapuerca, Burgos), Colomera (Sant Esteve de la Sarga, Lleida) and Valdavara-1 (Becerreá, Lugo). These associations reveal that the palaeoenvironment was more humid than today in the sites under study, and the landscape was dominated by woodland and woodland margins in all the studied layers. Further, the climatic conditions were stable, but with winters colder than at present, above all in the Mediterranean area. Finally, our data have been compared with other environmental and climatic proxies, showing that human activities exerted little impact on the palaeoenvironmental conditions that occurred from 7000 to 3000 BP in the Iberian Peninsula.     

Towards the vegetation and settlement history of the southern Dobrudza coastal region, north-eastern Bulgaria: A pollen diagram from Lake Durankulak

Palynological investigation and radiocarbon dating of a 6-m core from lake Durankulak, north-eastern Bulgaria, enables vegetation development and human occupation from ca. 5500–5300 cal. B.C. onwards to be traced. Steppe vegetation that included with groves of deciduous trees asQuercus, Ulmus, Carpinus belulus andCorylus changed to a forest-steppe after 4000 cal. B.C. The archaeopalynological record indicates three distinct phases of human activity as follows: (1) 5300–4200 cal. B.C. (late Neolithic and Eneolithic) during which farming, that included a substantial arable component, was pursued, (2) 3500–3000 cal. B.C. (transition to early Bronze Age) when stock rearing appears to have dominated, and (3) after 1300 cal. B.C. (late Bronze Age) when arable farming again assumed importance. The palynological data correlate well with the rich archaeological record for human settlement that is available for the region from late Neolithic times onwards.     

Human impact on mid- and late Holocene vegetation in south Cumbria, UK

The use of 9 pollen sampling sites and 56 14C dates has identified hitherto unsuspected or poorly-defined sequences of mid- to late Holocene (late Neolithic to post-Medieval) anthropogenic vegetation changes in south Cumbria, U.K. A series of small-scale, but significant woodland clearance episodes are recorded throughout the Bronze Age, followed by a marked recession in activity during the early Iron Age. The late Iron Age-Roman periods witnessed the first major clearance of woodland in the region which was succeeded by woodland regeneration in the post-Roman/early Medieval period. Woodland clearance intensified in the later Medieval period culminating in large areas of permanently open landscape. The results show that high-resolution, independently date pollen analysis is necessary to reveal regional evidence of small, temporary Bronze Age clearances. A well-documented prehistoric wooden trackway from Foulshaw Moss is shown to be significantly older than previously thought, dating to the mid-Bronze Age, ca. 1550–1250 cal B.C. Pre-Roman cereal cultivation in the area is also confirmed.The Department of Earth Sciences     

Differences in the vegetation of the North Iberian Peninsula during the last 16,000 years

The dynamics of vegetation in the North Iberian Peninsula have been historically established from peaty and lacustrine records obtained in strongly continental mountainous areas. Pollen records located in areas with a more oceanic climate, have allowed a more precise evaluation of the changes and differences in the vegetation development of the various biogeographical areas in the North Iberian Peninsula, during the Late-glacial and Holocene. It was found that: (1) The vegetation of the Cantabrian–Atlantic province in northern Iberian Peninsula responded to climatic changes during the last 16000 years. (2) Tree vegetation declined during the Oldest Dryas, with steppe vegetation in the interior and cryophilous vegetation along the coast. (3) During the time of the Lateglacial Interestadial, lowlands, arboreal vegetation was dominant in the landscape (Pinus, Betula, Quercus, Corylus). (4) During the Younger Dryas the differences between coast and interior are less obvious. (5) During the Holocene oceanic decidious forests of Quercus robur, Corylus avellana, Tilia sp. and Fagus sylvatica were present along the coast. At low altitudes, in the interior, forests of Quercus robur / pyrenaica, enclaves of pine woods and Mediterranean types of forest (Quercus ilex, Olea europea) were present. At higher altitudes Pinus (P. sylvestris and P. uncinata) or mixed forests of Pinus and Betula were dominant.     

Quantification of mycophenolate mofetil in human skin extracts using high-performance liquid chromatography–electrospray mass spectrometry

A sensitive and selective method for the quantification of mycophenolate mofetil and its active metabolite mycophenolic acid in different human skin layers after dermal administration is presented. The skin layers were separated after in vitro penetration experiments and a methanolic extraction was performed. Positive ion electrospray HPLC–MS in selected ion monitoring mode was used to quantify the substances after isocratic separation by a C₁₈ analytical column. The minimum detectable concentrations were 850 pg/ml for MMF and 1 ng/ml for MPA. The peak areas depended linearly on the concentration of both drugs over the range of 25–1000 ng/ml (r²≥0.996) with accuracy ≤9.8% and precision ≤13.2%. Total imprecision at quantification limits was 15.2% at 10 ng/ml and 16.3% at 1500 ng/ml for MMF and 15.1% at 21.0 ng/ml and 17.5% at 1300 ng/ml for MPA. This HPLC–MS method will be applicable to the profiling of MMF amounts in skin and its conversion to MPA after application of different formulations.     

The effect of growth conditions on the light-harvesting apparatus in Rhodopseudomonas acidophila

The detailed effect on the light-harvesting apparatus of three different wild-type strains of Rhodopseudomonas acidophila in response to changes in both light-intensity and temperature have been investigated. In all three strains at high light-intensities (160 mol s m² and above) the only LH2 antenna complex synthesised is the B800–850 complex. In strains 7050 and 7750 as the light-intensity is lowered the B800–850 complex is gradually replaced by another type of LH2 the B800–820 complex. However, at no light-intensities studied is this changeover complete when the cells are grown at 30°C. If however, the light-intensity is lowered at temperatures below 25°C with strain 7750 there is a complete replacement of the B800–850 complex by the B800–820 complex. At all light-intensities and temperatures tested, strain 10050 only synthesised the B800–850 complex. Strain 7050 also responded to changes in light-intensity by altering its carotenoid composition. At high light-intensity the major carotenoids were rhodopin and rhodopin-glucoside, while at low light-intensities the major ones were rhodopinal and rhodopinal-glucoside. This change in carotenoid content started to occur at rather higher light-intensities than the switchover from B800–850 to B800–820.     

Antenna organization in the purple sulfur bacteria Chromatium tepidum and Chromatium vinosum

Structural aspects of the core antenna in the purple sulfur bacteria Chromatium tepidum and Chromatium vinosum were studied by means of fluorescence emission and singlet-singlet annihilation measurements. In both species the number of bacteriochlorophylls of the core antenna between which energy transfer can occur corresponds to one core-reaction center complex only. From measurements of variable fluorescence we conclude that in C. tepidum excitation energy can be transferred back from the core antenna (B920) to the peripheral B800–850 complex in spite of the relatively large energy gap, and on basis of annihilation measurements a model of separate core-reaction center units accompanied by their own peripheral antenna is suggested. C. vinosum contains besides a core antenna, B890, two peripheral antennae, B800–820 and B800–850. Energy transfer was found to occur from the core to B800–850, but not to B800–820, and it was concluded that in C. vinosum each core-reaction center complex has its own complement of B800–850. The results reported here are compared to those obtained earlier with various strains and species of purple non-sulfur bacteria.Abbreviations BChl- bacteriochlorophyll - B800–820 and B800–850- antenna complexes with Q_y-band absorption maxima near 800 nm and 820 or 850 nm, respectively - B890 and B920- antenna complexes with Q_y-band absorption maxima near 890 and 920 nm, respectively - LH1- light harvesting 1 or core antenna - LH2- light harvesting 2 or peripheral antenna     

Palaeoecological evidence for Holocene vegetation, climate and land-use change in the low Don basin and Kalmuk area, southern Russia

Two¹⁴C-dated pollen profiles from mires in the steppe belt of southern Russia are presented. On the basis of these and data from earlier investigations, the Holocene forest history of the southern part of Russia and Ukraine is reconstructed. The steppe belt is very sensitive to climatic oscillations and, in particular, to changes in evapotranspiration. The most favourable climate occurred between 6000 and 4500 B.P. (6800–5200 cal. B.P.), when forest attained its maximum extent in the steppe belt. The period 4500–3500 B.P. (5200–3800 cal. B.P.) was characterised by drier climate with the most arid phase occurring between 4200–3700 B.P. (4700–4000 cal. B.P.). During arid phases, the area under forest and also peat accumulation rates declined. Subsequently, a number of less pronounced climatic oscillations occurred such as in the period 3400/3300–2800 B.P. (3600/3500–2900 cal. B.P.) when there was a return to more humid conditions. During the last 2500 years, the vegetation cover of the steppe belt in southern Russia and Ukraine took on its present-day aspect. On the one hand, there is close correlation between the Holocene vegetation history of southern Russia and Ukraine and, on the other hand, the steppe belt of Kazakhstan and transgressions in the Caspian sea. Human impact on the natural vegetation became important from the Bronze Age onwards (after 4500 B.P.; 5200 cal. B.P.). Particular attention is given to the history of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris), which had a much wider distribution in the southern part of eastern Europe in the early Holocene. The reduction in range during recent millennia has come about as a result of the combined effects of both climatic deterioration and increased human impact.     

Mid- to late-Holocene vegetation history of Greater Exmoor,UK: estimating the spatial extent of human-induced vegetation change

This paper presents the results from three pollen profiles from a group of small spring mire sites on the southern edge of Exmoor in south west England. The size and topography of these sites allow detailed local landscape histories around each site to be reconstructed which broadly cover the mid- to late-Holocene. Comparison of the individual local landscape histories demonstrates the scale of spatial variation in vegetation around the upland edge, and facilitates understanding of human-landscape interactions from the early Neolithic onward. In the early Neolithic significant short-term woodland disturbance is recorded around the upland fringe, including clearance of oak-hazel-elm woodland, suggesting that the shift from Mesolithic to Neolithic is not marked by a gradual environmental transition. Following this, there is clear evidence of Neolithic management of upland heath using fire, presumably for the management of upland grazing. Woodland clearances are recorded throughout the later Prehistoric period; however, the use of multiple profiling suggests that woodland clearance is spatially discrete, even within an area of 4 km². Pastoral land use is dominant around the uplands until around 900–1,000 a.d., and there is no discernible Roman or post-Roman period impact in the vegetation, suggesting cultural stability from the late Iron Age to the early Medieval period. By 1,100 a.d., there is a shift to mixed arable-pastoral farming which appears to continue well into the post-Medieval period.     

Land-use patterns and cultural change in the Middle to Late Bronze Age in Ireland: inferences from pollen records

In Ireland, the Middle to Late Bronze Age (1500–600 cal b.c.) is characterised by alternating phases of prolific metalwork production (the Bishopsland and Dowris Phases) and apparent recessions (the Roscommon Phase and the Late Bronze Age-Iron Age transition). In this paper, these changes in material culture are placed in a socio-economic context by examining contemporary settlement and land-use patterns reconstructed from the pollen record. The vegetation histories of six tephrochronologically linked sites are presented, which provide high-resolution and chronologically well-resolved insights into changes in landscape use over the Middle to Late Bronze Age. The records are compared with published pollen records in an attempt to discern if there are trends in woodland clearance and abandonment from which changes in settlement patterns can be inferred. The results suggest that prolific metalworking industries correlate chronologically with expansion of farming activity, which indicates that they were supported by a productive subsistence economy. Conversely, declines in metalwork production occur during periods when farming activity was generally less extensive and perhaps more centralised, and it is proposed that disparate socio-economic or political factors, rather than a collapse of the subsistence economy, lie behind the demise of metalworking industries.     

Holocene vegetation history and tree-line changes on a north–south transect crossing major climate gradients in southern Norway—evidence from pollen and plant macrofossils in lake sediments

Long-term tree-line fluctuations have been studied using pollen and plant macrofossils preserved in lake sediments from three sites on an oceanic to continental transect in southern Norway. After deglaciation the early Holocene vegetation developed from an open pioneer herb-dominated vegetation into dwarf-shrub heath with shrubs, which was soon colonised by Betula and later also by Pinus sylvestris at the two lower sites. Maximum tree-line altitudes occurred in the early-to mid-Holocene. P. sylvestris reached 100–150 m higher than at present in continental areas, and 35–100 m higher on the west coast during the Holocene. Betula pubescens grew at altitudes that today reach 1300 m a.s.l. in Jotunheimen and 800 m a.s.l. in western Norway. The Pinus forest was at the two southwestern sites mixed with Betula and Alnus was closer to the sites between 8500 and 7500 cal years BP. A shift from mixed pine-birch woodland to birch woodland is seen from ca. 4300 cal years BP with the development of a sub-alpine birch belt followed by further recession of the birch forest. On the west coast, birch dominated only during the last 500–1000 years. Further decrease of woodland and opening of the landscape in the last 2000 years occurred due to climatic change and human impact such as sheep and cattle grazing.     

The effect of low temperatures on the photosynthetic apparatus of Quercus ilex subsp. ballota at its lower and upper altitudinal limits in the Iberian peninsula and during a single freezing-thawing cycle

We investigated the response of the photosynthetic apparatus during an episode of extreme low winter temperature in Quercus ilex subsp. ballota (Desf.) Samp., a typical Mediterranean evergreen species in the Iberian peninsula. Both plants in a woodland located at high altitude (1,177 m. a.s.l.) and potted plants obtained from acorns of the same populations grown at low altitude (225 m. a.s.l.) were analyzed. Net CO₂ assimilation rate was negative and there was a marked decrease in photosystem II (PSII) efficiency during winter in leaves of the woodland population (high altitude individuals). These processes were accompanied by increases in non-photochemical quenching (NPQ) and in the de-epoxidated carotenoids within the xanthophyll cycle, mechanisms aimed to dissipate excess energy. In addition, these de-epoxidated carotenoids were largely preserved during the night. There was no chlorophyll bleaching during the winter, which suggests that leaves were not experiencing photoinhibitory damage. In fact, the net photosynthetic rate and the PSII efficiency recovered in spring. These changes were not observed, or were much more reduced, in individuals located at lower altitude after a few frosts. When the response to rapid temperature changes (from 20°C to –5°C and from –5°C to 20°C) was studied, it was found that the maximum potential PSII efficiency was fairly stable, ranging from 0.70 to 0.75. The rest of the photosynthetic parameters measured, actual and intrinsic PSII efficiency, photochemical and NPQ, responded immediately to the changes in temperature and, also, the recovery after cold events was practically immediate.     

Holocene vegetation and water level history in two bogs of the Cordillera de Talamanca, Costa Rica

Pollen records of Holocene sediment cores from the Costa Rican Cordillera de Talamanca (La Chonta bog, 2310 m and La Trinidad bog, 2700 m) show the postglacial development of the montane oak forest zone from ca. 9500 to 1500 yr BP. During the early Holocene (ca. 9500–700 yr BP), alder vegetation covered the La Chonta and La Trinidad bogs and their adjacent hills. The upper forest line is inferred to be at 2800–3000 m elevation. A Podocarpus-Quercus forest characterised the middle Holocene (ca. 7000–4500 yr BP). The upper forest line is located at >3000 m reaching the present-day altitudinal distribution. A Quercus forest characterised the late Holocene (ca. 4500–1500 yr BP). Compared to modern conditions, the early Holocene has similar average temperatures, but the moisture level was probably higher. Pollen evidence for the late Holocene indicates drier environmental conditions than today. In order to improve the paleoecological interpretation, we described the local vegetation and used moss samples as pollen traps at both montane bogs along strong soil moisture gradients.The Netherlands Centre for Geo-ecological Research, ICG     

Comparison of the feeding apparatus and diet of European sardines Sardina pilchardus of Atlantic and Mediterranean waters: ecological implications

In this study, the feeding apparatus (gill rakers, GR) and the diet composition of European sardine Sardina pilchardus populations living in two contrasting environments were compared: the upwelling area off western Iberia and the comparatively less productive region of the north‐western Mediterranean Sea. The importance of local adaptations in the trophic ecology of this species was estimated. Sardina pilchardus from the Atlantic Iberian coast and from the north‐western Mediterranean Sea have clear differences in the feeding apparatus and diet compositions. Those from the Atlantic Iberian coast have significantly more GRs than S. pilchardus of the same size range in the Mediterranean Sea. While S. pilchardus from the Mediterranean Sea mostly depend on prey ranging between 750–1500 and 3000–4000 µm, corresponding mostly to cladocerans, decapods and copepods, those from the Atlantic depend on smaller prey (50–500 and 1000–1500 µm) that include phytoplankton and copepods, particularly during summer months, and S. pilchardus eggs during the winter. The marked difference between the trophic ecology of S. pilchardus in the two areas studied appears to have originated from different dietary strategies that the two populations have adopted in contrasting feeding environments. These differences are shown to profoundly affect the size and quality of prey consumed, and the effect of cannibalism on the populations.     

Temperature Broadening of LH2 Absorption in Glycerol Solution

In order to determine the relationship between the pigment–protein and the pigment–pigment interactions, the measurements of absorption spectra of the peripheral light-harvesting complex LH2 from the purple bacteria Rhodobacter sphaeroides solvated in glycerol/buffer solution were carried out in a wide temperature range, from 4 to 250 K. The SDFs used for simulating the temperature dependence of B800 and B850 bands were determined in a parametric form. To fit experimental spectra the overall exciton–phonon coupling had to be assumed to be weak for B850 (λ/2V ≈ 0.3, where λ is the reorganization energy and V is the nearest-neighbor dipole–dipole coupling for bacteriochlorophylls). At physiological temperatures the intermediate nuclear bath dynamics compares with the magnitude of energy gap fluctuations. Slower dynamics with κ ≈ 0.39, where κ is the ratio of the nuclear relaxation rate and the line width parameter, determines the spectral shape of B850 whilst faster modulations characterize B800 (κ ≈2.39). The static disorder for the B800 band is relatively high with the characteristic value of the inhomogeneous bandwidth Γ^inh ≈120 cm⁻¹, while for the B850 band this value is almost equal to the dipole–dipole coupling strength (Γ^inh ≈360 cm⁻¹). It has been found that the LH2 absorption spectrum is likely to be influenced by the temperature dependence of the dielectric constant of the solution in the high temperature range, when the glycerol/buffer solution is in the liquid state.     

Predicting dominant phytoplankton quantities in a reservoir by using neural networks

A 14.6 m long profile from the northern part of the Hulun lake, the furthest north of the large lakes of China, has provided a sedimentary and diatom record since the late Glacial. The chronological sequence was established based on 10 radiocarbon dates. Sedimentological study and diatom analysis are synthesized for the reconstruction of the history of lake-level changes. The results show that the Hulun basin was not occupied by a lake during the Last Glaciation. A rapid transition to a deep lake occurred since 12850 yr B.P., and this high level phase lasted to 11200 yr B.P., although there existed several subordinate lake level fluctuations. An abrupt lake level drop and dry climatic conditions occurred during 11200–10600 yr B.P. The lake became deeper again from 10600 yr B.P. to 10300 yr B.P. Hulun lake at the early Holocene was characterized by the low lake-level, and the lake level rose again in 7200–5800 yr B.P., though the lake-levels changed quite variably. A dry condition occurred and lake level declined again during 5800–3000 yr B.P. The presence of the palaeosol on the top of this profile indicates the persistence of low lake levels after 3000 yr B.P. The comparison with the other lake-level records from northern China has suggested that the Hulun Lake shows a different lake level history from the lakes in monsoon areas.     

黄土丘陵沟壑区景观格局演变特征——以陕西省延安市为例

以陕西省延安市1985年、2000年和2008年三期1∶25万景观单元类型图,1∶5万地形图等生成的数字高程模型(DEM)为数据源,基于ArcGIS 9.3软件,采用多距离空间聚类、景观单元类型转移矩阵、空间数据叠加分析等方法分析了延安市景观格局的演变特征。结果表明:延安市的景观是由林地、灌木、草地和农田等基本景观单元构成的复合景观;研究期间农地面积急剧减少,流失的农地主要转变为林地、草地、灌木和聚落,除农地和裸地外,其他景观单元类型面积均有不同程度的增加;1985—2008年,林地、灌木和草地聚集的最大尺度减小,而农田聚集的最大尺度变大,农田和草地的空间聚集强度明显小于林地和灌木;延安市主要景观单元类型演变主要发生在海拔1100—1500 m之间的区域和坡度范围7—21°之间的区域,但农田向聚落的演变主要发生在海拔较低(900—1300 m)、坡度较缓(7°)的平川缓丘地带。1999年之前,经济的迅速发展是延安市景观格局演变的主要驱动因素;而1999年之后,国家推行的退耕还林(还草)等一系列生态重建措施成为延安市景观格局变化的主要驱动因素。     

Distribution and conservation significance of endemic species of flowering plants in Peru

Using the data published in the Catalogue of the Flowering Plants and Gymnosperms of Peru, we analyzed the elevational distributions of 5323 species reported as endemics from that country as a whole, for 10 families with the highest number of endemic taxa in Peru, and the distribution patterns of these species according to life form. We calculated the density of endemism (number of endemic species divided by area × 1000) and absolute number of endemic species among life forms and families, along an elevational gradient. Overall densities of endemics were 10–15 times higher at mid-elevation (2000–3500 m) than in the Amazonian lowlands (0–500 m). Absolute numbers of endemics peaked at 1500–3000 m for herbs, shrubs, and epiphytes, while trees, vines, and lianas showed maxima in the lowlands (0–500 m); yet densities of endemics for all life forms peaked at 1500–3000 m. Among the 10 families with the highest number of endemics, densities of endemics peaked at mid- to high elevation (1500–4500 m), but showed much disparity in the elevational distribution of absolute numbers of endemic species. Finally, the percentage of endemic species to total species is highest for herbs, shrubs, and epiphytes. Given that less than 10% of the land area for each of the montane zones (2000–4500 m) is protected compared to 13.5–29.9% in the lower elevations (0–1000 m), we recommend that priority be given to increasing the size of protected areas at mid- to high altitude in the Andean slopes to grant further protection in zones with the highest density of endemics. We also recommend that more emphasis be given to collecting and studying non-trees, since most endemic species belong to that class.     

Last millennium palaeoenvironmental changes from a Baltic bog (Poland) inferred from stable isotopes, pollen, plant macrofossils and testate amoebae

The Baltic coast of Northern Poland is an interesting region for palaeoclimatic studies because of the mixed oceanic and continental climatic influences and the fact that the dominance of one or the other of these two influences might have changed over time. Also, unlike many more intensively studied regions of Europe, human impact in the region was rather limited until the 19th century. We present a 1200-year high-resolution record from Stążki mire, an ombrotrophic bog located 35 km from the Baltic Sea coast. Using testate amoebae, stable isotopes (δ¹³C) of Sphagnum stems, pollen, plant macrofossils and dendroecological analyses, our aims were to: 1) reconstruct the last millennium palaeoenvironment in the study site and its surroundings, 2) identify the major wet–dry shifts, 3) determine if those events correlate with climate change and human impact, 4) assess the resilience of the Baltic bog ecosystem following human impact, and 5) compare the palaeo-moisture signal from the Baltic coast with records from more oceanic regions. Two dry periods are inferred at AD 1100–1500 and 1650–1900 (–2005). The first dry shift is probably climate-driven as pollen record shows little evidence of human indicators. The second dry shift can be related to local peat exploitation of the mire. In the 20th century additional limited drainage took place and since ca. AD 1950 the mire has been recovering. From 1500 AD onwards all proxies indicate wetter condition. The beginning of this wet shift occurred during the Little Ice Age and may therefore be a climatic signal. The macrofossil data show that Sphagnum fuscum dominated the pristine mire vegetation but then declined and finally disappeared at ca. AD 1900. This pattern is comparable with the timing of extinction of Sphagnum austinii (= Sphagnum imbricatum) in the UK. This study illustrates the value of high-resolution multi-proxy studies of peat archives to assess the magnitude of anthropogenic land-use changes. This study presents the first direct comparison of testate amoebae and stable isotope data from the same core. The two proxies correlate significantly throughout the record and most strongly for the latter part of the record when most of the variability was recorded.