Unmelanized plumage patterns in Old World leaf warblers do not correspond to sequence variation at the melanocortin-1 receptor locus (MC1R)

Evolutionary changes in patterns and coloration of plumage are likely to represent a major mechanism for speciation among birds, yet the molecular basis for such changes remains poorly understood. Recently much attention has focused on the melanocortin-1 receptor (MC1R) as a candidate locus for determining the level and extent of epidermal melanin deposition. We tested the hypothesis that MC1R sequence variation is associated with interspecific variation in unmelanized plumage pattern elements in Old World leaf warblers (genus Phylloscopus). This genus is characterized by a variety of plumage patterns that nonetheless vary along similar lines. Species vary in the presence or absence of pale (unmelanized) pattern elements against a dark background, and these patterns are used in species recognition and courtship. We sequenced most of the MC1R coding region for eight Phylloscopus species, representing the full range of plumage patterns found in this genus. Although MC1R sequence varied among species, this variation was not related to melanin-based plumage variation. Rather, evolution of this locus in these birds appears to be conservative. Ratios of nonsynonymous to synonymous substitutions (dN/dS) were consistently low, suggesting that strong purifying selection has operated at this locus, and likelihood ratio testing revealed no evidence of variable selective pressures among lineages or across codons. Adaptive evolution at MC1R may be constrained by the adaptive importance of plumage pattern elements in this genus.     

Bacterial degradability of an intrafeather unmelanized ornament: a role for feather‐degrading bacteria in sexual selection?

The impact of feather‐degrading bacilli on feathers depends on the presence or absence of melanin. In vitro studies have demonstrated that unmelanized (white) feathers are more degradable by bacteria than melanized (dark) ones. However, no previous study has looked at the possible effect of feather‐degrading bacilli on the occurrence of patterns of unmelanized patches on otherwise melanized feathers. The pied flycatcher Ficedula hypoleuca Pallas, 1764 is a sexually dimorphic passerine with white wing bands consisting of unmelanized patches on dark flight feathers. These patches are considered to be a sexually selected trait in Ficedula flycatchers, especially in males, where the patches are more conspicuous (larger and possibly whiter) than in females. Using in vitro tests of feather bacterial degradation, we compared the degradability of unmelanized and melanized areas of the same feather for 127 primaries collected from the same number of individuals in a population breeding in central Spain (58 males and 69 females). In addition, we also looked for sex differences in feather degradability. Based on honest signalling theory and on the fact that there is stronger sexual selection for males to signal feather quality than in females, we predicted that unmelanized areas should be more degradable by bacteria than melanized ones within the same feather, and that these unmelanized areas should also be more degradable in males than in females. We confirmed both predictions. Microstructural differences between cross‐section dimensions of unmelanized and melanized barbs, but not differences in the density of barbs within unmelanized and melanized areas of feathers in males and females, could partly explain differences in degradability. This is the first study to show differences in bacterial degradability among markings on the same feather and among unmelanized feather patches between males and females as predicted by sexual selection theory. © 2012 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2012, 105 , 409–419.     

ECOLOGICAL DIVERSIFICATION AND COMMUNITY STRUCTURE IN THE OLD WORLD LEAF WARBLERS (GENUS PHYLLOSCOPUS): A PHYLOGENETIC PERSPECTIVE

I investigated the historical basis for variation in regional species diversity. I used a molecular phylogenetic analysis within a single genus of birds (the Old World leaf warblers, genus Phylloscopus) in conjunction with ecological studies in Europe, the Himalayas, and Japan to evaluate the importance of historical events in shaping the present constellation of morphology and behavior in the three different regions. The relatively depauperate assemblages have different histories. In Japan, there was invasion of several lineages, which have more closely related species elsewhere in Asia, whereas in Europe there was also limited in situ speciation. Much of the structure of peripheral communities is attributable to invasions from species-rich Asia, with little in situ morphological diversification. Within the Phylloscopus there are several phylogenetic clades with nonoverlapping size distributions. Major ecological and morphological shifts occurred early in the history of diversification within the group, and rarely since.     

Consistency of passerine embryo development and the use of embryonic staging in studies of hatching failure

Hatching failure is widespread in birds, and is usually the result of embryo death rather than infertility. Embryo death can result from both intrinsic and extrinsic factors, some of which may vary across the developmental period. Determining the point at which an embryo died during development may therefore help us to understand the underlying cause of death. Here we describe simple criteria that can be used by field ornithologists to establish the developmental stage of dead embryos found in unhatched passerine eggs, and explain how this can be used to estimate the date of embryo death. We compared the pattern of embryo development over the incubation period for three species, the Zebra Finch Taeniopygia guttata, Blue Tit Cyanistes caeruleus and Great Tit Parus major. We also compared rates of Zebra Finch embryo development under artificial and standard (parental) incubation. Embryo development rates were remarkably similar across the three species and between Zebra Finch embryos under artificial and natural incubation conditions. We therefore suggest that the pattern of embryo development in the Zebra Finch may provide a model for other small passerines with similar incubation periods, but acknowledge that further interspecific comparisons are required before this model is considered more widely applicable. By estimating embryo death dates using our approach, ornithologists will be able to determine temporal patterns of embryo mortality in relation to extrinsic environmental conditions. This approach may shed light on how extrinsic factors such as climate and parental behaviour influence embryo survival in wild birds.     

Pattern formation in the Drosophila embryo

Three plausible hypotheses about developmental commitments in the Drosophila embryo propose that: (1) a micromosaic of localized determinants in the egg trigger somatic commitments; (2) monotonic anterior-posterior and dorsal-ventral gradients in the egg specify positions by a series of threshold values; (3) sequential subdivision of the early embryo into 'anterior' or 'posterior' 'middle' or 'end', 'dorsal' or 'ventral', 'odd' or 'even' compartmental domains encodes the somatic commitment in each region in a combinatorial epigenetic code. Evidence in favour of such a combinatorial code includes its capacity to account for major features of transdetermination and for many single and coordinated homoeotic transformations. In particular, both these metaplasias often cause transformations between ectodermal tissues such as antenna and genitalia, whose anlagen lie far apart on the blastoderm fate map. This phenomenon is not naturally explained by monotonic gradient models. In contrast, not only transformation between distant regions of the fate map, but also the observed geometries of compartmental boundaries on the wing, and probable ones in the early embryo, are naturally explained by reaction-diffusion models. These systems form a discrete succession of differently shaped monotonic and nonmonotonic eigenfunction gradient patterns of the same morphogens, as the tissue containing the chemical system changes in size and shape, or in other parameters. The successive mirror symmetries in non-monotonic gradients predict that distant regions of the embryo make similar developmental commitments, and also predict specific classes of pattern mutants forming mirror symmetric structures along the embryo on a variety of length scales. Finally, reaction diffusion systems spontaneously generate transverse gradients of the underlying chemicals when more than one eigenfunction is amplified at once, and therefore specify two-dimensional positional information within domains. Although it is attractive, no feature of the combinatorial code hypothesis is verified. Current data relating to whether the sequential formation of compartmental boundaries actually reflects the commitment of the two isolated 'polyclones' to alternative fates, whether any genes act continuously to maintain disc commitments, and whether homoeotic mutants actually 'switch' disc determined states, are assessed.     

Two-dimensional pattern analysis on dominant species and community in subalpine meadow of Luya Mountain, Shanxi Province, China

The spatial pattern analysis of population and community is important to understand community structure and has become one key topic in modern plant ecology. There are many techniques for analyzing one-dimensional pattern in ecological literature. Two-dimensional pattern analysis is better than one-dimensional analysis in the study on community spatial characteristics and structure. However, it is hard to analyze these two-dimensional patterns due to poor effective methodology. The two-dimensional sampling using two transects that meet at right angles was applied to get quadrat data in this work. And then the data from the two transects were analyzed separately by one-dimensional pattern analysis method, two-term local quadrat variance. The length, width, and area of patches at different scales of pattern for populations were obtained from the analysis. For community pattern, detrended correspondence analysis (DCA) was employed to summarize the species information firstly, and then the first DCA axis scores were analyzed to check its pattern. The application of this method to the pattern analysis on dominant populations and community for subalpine meadow (Comm. Polygonum viviparum + Carex rigescens + Kobresia bellardii) in the Luya mountains showed that it could release the characteristics of spatial pattern clearly and was a very effective technique. The method is easy to use and saves time with obvious advantages, compared with the two-dimensional pattern analysis methods presented in the literatures. In the study meadow, the patterns of the main dominant species, Polygonum viviparum, Carex rigescens, and Kobresia bellardii, were apparent and comparatively regular in shape with large areas of patches at the same scale compared with other species such as Festuca sp. and Thalictrum petaloideum. There were two or three scales of patterns for each plant population studied. This was related to population features, the interaction with environmental factors, and their dominant position in the community. The two scales of patterns for the meadow community were clear. The pattern of community was closely correlated with that of the main dominant species. The patches of dominant species were inter-distributed and overlapped, and formed the community pattern together. This is beneficial for utilization of resources, and keeping the community stable. __________ Translated from Acta Ecologica Sinica, 2005, 25(6): 1264–1268 [译自: 生态学报]     

Teasing apart crypsis and aposematism – evidence that disruptive coloration reduces predation on a noxious toad

Both cryptic and aposematic colour patterns can reduce predation risk to prey. These distinct strategies may not be mutually exclusive, because the impact of prey coloration depends on a predator's sensory system and cognition and on the environmental background. Determining whether prey signals are cryptic or aposematic is a prerequisite for understanding the ecological and evolutionary implications of predator–prey interactions. This study investigates whether coloration and pattern in an exceptionally polymorphic toad, Rhinella alata, from Barro Colorado Island, Panama reduces predation via background matching, disruptive coloration, and/or aposematic signaling. When clay model replicas of R. alata were placed on leaf litter, the model's dorsal pattern – but not its colour – affected attack rates by birds. When models were placed on white paper, patterned and un‐patterned replicas had similar attack rates by birds. These results indicate that dorsal patterns in R. alata are functionally cryptic and emphasize the potential effectiveness of disruptive coloration in a vertebrate taxon.     

Flora and fauna assemblages vary with local topography in a subtropical eucalypt forest

Local‐scale spatial patterning (over hundreds of metres) in terrestrial assemblages was investigated by sampling a variety of organisms within a 400 ha eucalypt forest area in the lowlands of south‐east Queensland. Organisms were trees, shrubs, birds, insects extracted from the litter layer, and insects caught in pitfall traps. Each group was sampled using a standardized methodology, and the component taxa were counted and identified to a level commonly used in ecological studies of that organism – varying from species to order levels. Sites adjacent to drainage lines or ephemeral streams were biotically more similar to one another than they were to paired upslope sites 100–200 m distant and 15–35 m higher in altitude. This phenomenon occurred irrespective of the level of taxonomic resolution or type of organism. Within each taxonomic group, some components were mainly riparian, while others were more characteristic of upslope sites. Characteristically riparian taxa included trees in the genus Glochidion, the shrub genus Leptospermum, birds in the Pachycephalidae and Meliphagidae families, and litter invertebrates in the order Acarina. Upslope taxa included shrubs in the Rutaceae, birds in the Artamidae, and ants. Within the groups of trees, birds and litter invertebrates, more taxa were characteristic of riparian than upslope sites. Local scale biotic patterns were more strongly correlated with altitude than with measured soil characteristics; however, microtopographical differences would also be highly correlated with a large suite of covarying environmental features. The patterns of diversity and the implications for survey design and conservation are discussed.     

Growth and metabolism in the embryonic white-spotted bamboo shark, Chiloscyllium plagiosum: comparison with embryonic birds and reptiles

Birds and reptiles have been important models for studying the energetics of embryonic development. Studies on these groups reveal three metabolic patterns: an exponential increase in metabolism with embryo age, a sigmoidal increase with age, or a sigmoidal increase followed by a decrease before hatching. Models developed to explain avian metabolic patterns and developmental costs partition total costs between growth and maintenance. To test the generality of these models, we examined embryonic energetics of the oviparous white-spotted bamboo shark Chiloscyllium plagiosum. Oviparous sharks must actively ventilate during development, which could increase their development costs relative to birds and reptiles. Our results demonstrated that bamboo shark embryos have a peaked metabolic pattern and sigmoidal increase in body mass similar to ratites, crocodilians, and some turtles. The total cost of development was higher in bamboo sharks than in reptiles and many birds. However, calculations reveal that the high cost of bamboo shark development can be explained by the relatively long incubation time rather than the additional cost of muscular movement. Finally, an avian model can reasonably describe shark embryonic metabolism, suggesting that movement costs do not significantly alter the metabolic pattern during development.     

Isolated trees support lower bird taxonomic richness than trees within habitat patches but similar functional diversity

Large isolated trees are keystone structures that can help maintain biodiversity in fragmented landscapes, with evidence that open areas with isolated trees may support similar levels of taxonomic diversity to nearby patches of habitat. However, it is not clear if isolated trees can support the same diversity of ecological functions as trees in habitat patches. We compared species richness, community composition, and functional diversity of birds in trees at forest edges and isolated trees. Twenty isolated trees and ten edge trees of American muskwood (Guarea guidonia) were selected, and sampled on 11 occasions, each of 20 min, over four months. All individual birds that landed at trees were recorded using a standardized protocol. Species richness was, on average, almost twice as high at edge trees than at isolated trees. Taxonomic composition differed between edge and isolated trees, with many forest‐dependent birds restricted to edge trees, and some open‐area birds restricted to isolated trees. Overall functional diversity was similar at edge and isolated trees, but some ecological functions (e.g., frugivory) were less frequent, while others (e.g., granivory) were more frequent at isolated compared with edge trees. Isolated trees are important for supporting many ecological functions in modified areas. However, the maintenance of forest patches is essential to complement the provision of such functions in modified landscapes. Abstract in Portuguese is available with online material.     

Frugivoría por Aves en un Paisaje Fragmentado: Consecuencias en la Dispersión de Semillas1

Few data exist on seed dispersal by frugivorous birds in fragmented landscapes, originating from tropical dry forests, in contrast to more abundant data from tropical rain forests. In this study, we assessed the effect of frugivorous birds in a fragmented landscape of Veracruz, Mexico, now occupied by remnant fragments of tropical semi‐deciduous forest and dry deciduous forest, grassland, and shrubby patches on sand dunes. We determined four characteristics related to seed dispersal by birds: the interacting species of plants and birds, the characteristics of these species, spatio‐temporal variation in the dispersal system, and the outcome of the process. During one year, we recorded 54 frugivorous bird species and 33 ornithochorous plant species, which engaged in 176 different bird‐plant species interactions. Similarity (Sorensen index) of frugivorous bird communities using different vegetation types was high (>70%), suggesting that many bird species used all of the vegetation types. In contrast, the similarity of ornithochorous plant communities among vegetation types commonly was low (<37%), suggesting that most plant species were restricted to particular sites in this landscape. At the landscape level, as well as for tropical deciduous forest, we detected a significant positive relationship (Spearman's correlation of rank coefficient >0.65, P <0.05) among richness per month of frugivorous birds and plant species bearing fleshy fruits. Seeds of many plant species previously detected in studies of seed rain at the site were eaten by birds during this study. Most seeds of zoochorous species, which are deposited in the dry and decidous tropical forests patches, are produced within these vegetation types (i.e., they are autochthonous species), whereas bird‐dispersed seeds arriving in grassland and shrubby patches are produced outside (i.e., allochthonous) and are mostly woody species. Birds are important seed dispersers among vegetation types in this landscape but they have different effects in each one. The four characteristics studied, as well as the landscape approach of this research, allowed us to detect spatial and temporal patterns that otherwise would have remained undetected.     

Cropland edge,forest succession,and landscape affect shrubland bird nest predation

The effects of habitat edges on nest survival of shrubland birds, many of which have experienced significant declines in the eastern United States, have not been thoroughly studied. In 2007 and 2008, we collected data on nests of 5 shrubland passerine species in 12 early successional forest patches in North Carolina, USA. We used model selection methods to assess the effect of distance to cropland and mature forest edge on nest predation rates and additionally accounted for temporal trends, nest stage, vegetation structure, and landscape context. For nests of all species combined, nest predation decreased with increasing distance to cropland edge, by nearly 50% at 250 m from the cropland edge. Nest predation of all species combined also was higher in patches with taller saplings and less understory vegetation, especially in the second year of our study when trees were 4–6 m tall. Predation of field sparrow (Spizella pusilla) nests was lower in landscapes with higher agricultural landcover. Nest predation risk for shrubland birds appears to be greater near agricultural edges than mature forest edges, and natural forest succession may drive patterns of local extirpation of shrubland birds in early successional forest patches. Thus, we suggest that habitat patches managed for shrubland bird populations should be considerably large or wide (>250 m) when adjacent to crop fields and maintained in structurally diverse early seral stages. © 2011 The Wildlife Society.     

Building a bird brain: Sculpting neural circuits for a learned behavior

Development in animals is frequently characterized by periods of heightened capacity for both neural and behavioral change. So-called sensitive periods of development are windows of opportunity in which brain and behavior are most susceptible to modification. Understanding what factors regulate sensitive periods constitutes one of the main goals of developmental neuroscience. Why is the ability to learn complex behavioral patterns often restricted to sensitive periods of development? Songbirds provide a model system for unraveling the mysteries of neural mechanisms of learning during development. Like many songbirds, zebra finches (Taeniopygia guttata) learn a specific vocal pattern during a restricted period early in life. Young birds must hear songs produced by members of their species; this auditory experience is thought to engender specific changes in the brain to guide the process of vocal learning. Many studies of the songbird system have focused on examining relationships between brain development and learning. One goal of this work is to elucidate mechanisms that regulate basic processes of neural development, and in so doing to shed light on factors governing the emergence of a complex learned behavior.     

Role of mixed‐species flocks in the use of adjacent savannas by forest birds in the central Cerrado,Brazil

Abstract: We examined the role of mixed‐species flocks for forest birds during their breeding and non‐breeding seasons in the use of savannas adjacent to forests in central Cerrado, Brazil. Transect surveys (n = 64) were conducted in eight savanna patches. Distances of birds from forests were estimated. Recorded birds were classified as members or not of mixed‐species flocks. About half of the bird species recorded in savannas were found in at least one mixed‐species flock. As distance from the forest increased, the number of species in mixed‐species flocks tended not to vary, while the number of species foraging alone or in mono‐specific groups decreased. Thus, for some forest species, participation in mixed‐species flocks allowed a greater use of more distant savannas. This tendency of being in mixed‐species flocks at greater distances from forests also can be interpreted as a reluctance to forage alone or in mono‐specific groups due to higher predation risk in less protective vegetation distant from cover. There was strong seasonal variation in the participation of bird species in mixed‐species flocks. There were significantly more species in mixed‐species flocks than out of these associations in the non‐breeding season, while differences in the breeding season were not significant. These patterns occurred, in part because mixed‐species flocks tended to be more frequent, to have more species and to forage at greater distances from forests during the early non‐breeding season than in other periods. This study suggests that the formation of mixed‐species flocks plays an important role in promoting the use of adjacent savannas by forest birds at forest/savanna boundaries in Cerrado. It also pointed out a novel advantage gained by birds with participation in mixed‐species flocks – greater use of adjacent vegetation patches.     

Isolation and characterization of microsatellite markers in Ijima's leaf warbler,Phylloscopus ijimae (Aves: Sylviidae)

Microsatellite markers were isolated from Ijima's leaf warbler, Phylloscopus ijimae. From an enriched genomic library and using the fast isolation by AFLP of sequences containing repeats (FIASCO) method, 10 polymorphic loci were obtained. Four to 12 alleles were identified in an analysis of 23 Ijima's leaf warblers, with the degree of heterozygosity ranging from 0.35 to 0.87. The markers were tested in four species of Phylloscopus and two other non‐Phylloscopus species of Sylviidae. Some loci were successfully amplified and showed polymorphism in Phylloscopus species, whereas amplification in the non‐Phylloscopus species was less successful.     

The dispersion of arctic breeding birds according to snow-free patch dimensions during the spring thaw in the north-eastern Taimyr Peninsula,Russia

 The dispersion of passerines, ptarmigan Lagopus mutus and waders in relation to available snow-free patches is described after spring arrival but prior to the main thaw at Pronchishcheva Lake, north-eastern Taimyr, in June 1991. The numbers of ptarmigan and passerines were proportional to patch perimeter but disproportionately more birds occurred on smaller patches. In contrast, wader numbers were proportional to patch area but disproportionately more occurred along the perimeters of large patches. These patterns are discussed in relation to risk of predation and food availability. We speculate that the predation risk is higher in small patches for uniformly coloured birds but may be lower for white and pied species. The availability of overwintering plants, fresh plant growth and insects is thought to be highest at the perimeters of snow-free patches. Received: 19 November 1993/Accepted: 4 September 1995     

Morphological specializations of the yolk sac for yolk processing in embryonic corn snakes (Pantherophis guttatus: Colubridae)

Non‐avian reptiles commonly are assumed to be like birds in their overall patterns of development. However, colubrid corn snakes (Pantherophis guttatus ) have mechanisms of yolk cellularization and processing that are entirely different from the avian pattern. In birds, a vascular “yolk sac” surrounds and digests the liquid yolk. In contrast, in corn snakes, the yolk material is converted into vascularized cords of yolk‐filled cells. In this study, we used stereomicroscopy, histology, and scanning electron microscopy to analyze this unusual developmental pattern in corn snakes. Our observations reveal that the yolk sac cavity is invaded by endodermal cells that proliferate, absorb yolk spheres, and form aggregates of interconnected cells within the liquid yolk mass. As development proceeds, small blood vessels arise from the yolk sac omphalopleure, penetrate into the yolk mass, and become tightly encased in the endodermal cells. The entire vitellus ultimately becomes converted into a mass of vascularized, “spaghetti‐like” strands of yolk‐laden cells. The resulting arrangement allows yolk to be digested intracellularly and yolk products to be transported to the developing embryo. Indirect evidence for this pattern in other species raises the possibility that it is ancestral for squamates and quite possibly Reptilia in general.     

Evolutionary ecology of Agave: distribution patterns,phylogeny, and coevolution (an homage to Howard S. Gentry)

With more than 200 species, the genus Agave is one of the most interesting and complex groups of plants in the world, considering for instance its great diversity and adaptations. The adaptations include the production of a single, massive inflorescence (the largest among plants) where after growing for many years, sometimes more than 30, the rosette dies shortly afterward, and the remarkable coevolution with their main pollinators, nectarivorous bats, in particular of the genus Leptonycteris. The physiological adaptations of Agave species include a photosynthetic metabolism that allows efficient use of water and a large degree of succulence, helping to store water and resources for their massive flowering event. Ecologically, the agaves are keystone species on which numerous animal species depend for their subsistence due to the large amounts of pollen and nectar they produce, that support many pollinators, including bats, perching birds, hummingbirds, moths, and bees. Moreover, in many regions of Mexico and in the southwestern United States, agaves are dominant species. We describe the contributions of H. S. Gentry to the understanding of agaves and review recent advances on the study of the ecology and evolution of the genus. We analyze the present and inferred past distribution patterns of different species in the genus, describing differences in their climatic niche and adaptations to dry conditions. We interpret these patterns using molecular clock data and phylogenetic analyses and information of their coevolving pollinators and from phylogeographic, morphological, and ecological studies and discuss the prospects for their future conservation and management.     

Two-dimensional pattern analysis on dominant species and community in subalpine meadow of Luya Mountain,Shanxi Province,China

The spatial pattern analysis of population and community is important to understand community structure and has become one key topic in modern plant ecology.There are many techniques for analyzing one-dimensional pattern in ecological literature.Two-dimensional pattern analysis is better than one-dimensional analysis in the study on community spatial characteristics and structure.However,it is hard to analyze these two-dimensional patterns due to poor effective methodology.The two-dimensional sampling using two transects that meet at right angles was applied to get quadrat data in this work.And then the data from the two transects were analyzed separately by one-dimensional pattern analysis method,two-term local quadrat variance.The length,width,and area of patches at different scales of pattern for populations were obtained from the analysis.For community pattern,detrended correspondence analysis (DCA)was employed to summarize the species information firstly,and then the first DCA axis scores were analyzed to check its pattern.The application of this method to the pattern analysis on dominant populations and community for subalpine meadow (Comm.Polygonum viviparum+Carex rigescens+Kobresia bellardii)in the Luya mountains showed that it could release the characteristics of spatial pattern clearly and was a very effective technique.The method is easy to use and saves time with obvious advantages,compared with the twodimensional pattern analysis methods presented in the literatures.In the study meadow,the patterns of the main dominant species,Polygonum viviparum,Carex rigescens,and Kobresia bellardii,were apparent and comparatively regular in shape with large areas of patches at the same scale compared with other species such as Festuca sp.and Thalictrum petaloideum.There were two or three scales of patterns for each plant population studied.This was related to population features,the interaction with environmental factors,and their dominant position in the community.The two scales of patterns for the meadow community were clear.The pattern of community was closely correlated with that of the main dominant species.The patches of dominant species were inter-distributed and overlapped,and formed the community pattern together.This is beneficial for utilization of resources,and keeping the community stable.     

芦芽山亚高山草甸优势种群和群落的二维格局分析

种群和群落的二维空间格局研究能够更好地揭示群落的空间和结构特征,但在分析方法上有较大的困难。用垂直相交的两条样带在两个方向上同时取样的二维取样法,获得数据,用一维格局分析方法分别分析,可以得到各个种不同格局规模斑块的长、宽及面积,实现二维格局研究。用DCA排序和格局分析方法相结合,可以完成群落的二维格局分析。在山西芦芽山亚高山草甸应用的结果表明这样的垂直样带二维取样及分析方法较好地反映了种群和群落的空间特性,是非常有效的,并且该方法简单易做,具有较大的可操作性。所研究的草甸主要优势种格局斑块的形状比较规则,面积也较大。次要种斑块多为不规则形,面积也较小。群落格局与主要优势种的格局关系密切。