Comparison of regeneration following burning,clearing or mineral sand mining at Tomago,NSW: I. Structure and growth of the vegetation

Abstract We have begun a long-term ecological research project to address questions about the impact of multiple disturbances on the species richness of communities and whether multiple disturbances are additive or interactive. A protected water catchment area was chosen, which is subjected to fires, sand mining and clearing, and for which detailed records are available. The study area, at Tomago (32°52′S, 151°45′E), has forest, woodland, shrubland and swamp on a sand substrate, with the vegetated dunes forming part of a coastal embayment. Forty-four sites were located in forested areas that had undergone disturbance by either fire, sand mining or clearing. Sites of each disturbance type were grouped into four age classes: less than 1 year since disturbance, nominally 1991; 5 years, nominally 1986; 11 years, nominally 1980; and 17 years, nominally 1974. A set of burned sites, with the time of the last fire matched to the times of the other disturbances, was used as the control response. In this paper we describe the study area and sites, then examine the effects of each single disturbance on vegetation structure. Canopy cover increased with time and type of disturbance, with 17 year old cleared or mined sites similar to the cover of 11 year old burned sites. In the first two years after disturbance, burned sites had significantly more understorey vegetation than cleared or mined sites, but by 5 years all three were similar. The data presented here show that regeneration of mined sites at Tomago is substantially slower than regeneration following disturbance by fire, with the regeneration of cleared sites intermediate but closer to mining than fire. After 17 years regeneration, cleared and sand mined sites had not returned to the vegetation structure of the pre-disturbance state. Understorey height and the amount of vegetation on cleared or mined sites have not achieved the levels in the original forest, although canopy cover did seem to have reached pre-disturbance levels. Current rehabilitation techniques are more sophisticated than those used 17 years ago and continued monitoring of sites currently being rehabilitated may show a faster return to pre-disturbance states. Having established the hierarchy and nature of the response to each single disturbance here, we are now in a position to investigate the impact of multiple disturbances.     

Effects of forest disturbance on the structure of ground-foraging ant communities in central Amazonia

This study evaluates biotic responses, using ants as bio-indicators, to relatively recent anthropogenic disturbances to mature forest in central Amazonia. The structure of the ground-foraging ant community was compared in four habitats that represented a gradient of disturbance associated with differences in land use. Ants were collected in undisturbed, mature forest, in an abandoned pasture, in a young regrowth forest (situated in a former pasture area), and in an old regrowth forest (established where mature forest was just cleared and abandoned). More ant species were found in mature and old regrowth forest than in the abandoned pasture. By contrast, ant abundance tended to decrease with forest maturity. Both pasture and young regrowth forest exhibited a distinct ant species composition compared to mature forest, whereas species composition in the old regrowth forest showed greater similarity to that of mature forest. In spite of differences in fallow time between former pasture areas and non-pasture areas, there is evidence that different land-management practices do result in different rates of recovery of the ant forest fauna after land abandonment. In any case, recuperation of the ground-foraging ant fauna appears to be faster than regeneration of the woody-plant community. In this sense, regrowth forests may be valuable for the conservation of ground-foraging ants and perhaps for other components of mature-forest leaf-litter fauna within the context of a fragmented landscape.     

Long‐term regeneration of a tropical plant community after sand mining

Sandy coastal plant communities in tropical regions have been historically under strong anthropic pressure. In Brazil, these systems shelter communities with highly plastic plant species. However, the potential of these systems to regenerate without human assistance after disturbances has hardly been examined. We determined the natural regeneration of a coastal sandy plain vegetation (restinga) in Brazil, 16 years after the end of sand removal. We inventoried 38 plots: 20 within a sand‐mined site and 18 in an adjacent undisturbed site. We expected lower diversity values in the sand‐mined site compared to the undisturbed site, but similar species composition between the two sites due to the spatial proximity of the two sites and the high plasticity of restinga species. Species were ranked using abundance and importance value index in both sites, and comparisons were performed using Rényi entropy profiles, rarefaction curves, principal component analysis, and redundancy analysis. Species composition and dominant species differed markedly between the two sites. Bromeliads and Clusia hilariana, well‐known nurse plants, dominated the undisturbed site but were almost absent in the regenerating site. Species richness did not differ between both sites, but diversity was higher in the undisturbed site. Within‐site composition differences in the mined area were associated with field characteristics. Interestingly, species classified as subordinate or rare in the undisturbed site became dominants in the regenerating site. These newer dominants in the sand‐mined site are not those known as nurse plants in other restingas, thus yielding strong implications for restoration.     

深圳湾福田红树林群落演替

对深圳湾福田凤塘河红树林演替过程中的群落结构、物种组成、多样性变化及演替趋势的研究结果表明:(1)演替各阶段群落均由秋茄(Kandelia candel)、木榄(Bruguiera gymnorrhiza)、桐花树(Aegiceras corniculatum)、白骨壤(Avicennia marina)及老鼠簕(Acanthus ilicifolius)5个种类组成。(2)演替早期(4 a)群落高度增长较快,之后继续保持较快增长,至17 a时趋于稳定,之后增长速度缓慢。(3)4 a和17 a的群落立木级均分布在Ⅱ级—Ⅳ级,56 a和73 a的群落立木均达到最高级Ⅴ级,该两群落立木在Ⅱ级—Ⅴ级均有分布。(4)随着演替的进展,除了73 a群落盖度较56 a群落稍有下降外,其它演替群落盖度逐渐增加;群落胸高断面积表现出与盖度一致的变化趋势;群落个体密度则逐渐下降;群落物种多样性和均匀度不断提高,群落优势度则逐渐下降;群落相似性系数的变化表明在演替过程中群落物种组成结构没有发生明显变化。(5)群落变化及演替为:秋茄+桐花树群落→秋茄群落→白骨壤+秋茄群落→白骨壤群落。     

The regeneration of soil micro-arthropod assemblages in a rehabilitating coastal dune forest at Richards Bay, South Africa

The structure and composition of the soil micro‐arthropod communities of five postmining rehabilitating sites (between 1 and 24 years after rehabilitation) are compared with that of an undisturbed dune forest benchmark. We extracted soil micro‐arthropods (Acari and insects) with a modified Berlese–Tullgren funnel and used soil carbon, calcium, potassium, magnesium, nitrogen, sodium, phosphorous and acidity (pH) as explanatory variables of micro‐arthropod community composition. Acari accounted for the majority of all the micro‐arthropods (between 65 and 97% of the sample) at the different sites. Density, richness, diversity and composition showed significant differences between the unmined benchmark site and the rehabilitating sites for both insects and Acari, with weak habitat‐age related patterns. Canonical Correspondence Analysis suggests that differences between samples from regenerating sites and those from the benchmark sites slowly decrease with increasing regeneration age, but that community composition is only weakly related to soil properties. Our results suggest that coastal dune forest rehabilitation could give rise to the regeneration of micro‐arthropod assemblages, but it may take a long time. Therefore, potential limiting factors for community regeneration need to be identified to improve the chances for successful restoration.     

间伐对日本黑松海岸林更新的影响

为弄清间伐对海岸林内环境因子 ,进而对海岸林天然更新的影响 ,在黑松海岸林内进行了 4种不同强度的块状间伐试验 .林分间伐后 ,对更新状况和环境因子进行了连续观测 .结果表明 ,间伐可以改善林内光环境、提高土壤的含水量、加强空气流动、促进枯枝落叶的分解等 .4 0年生的黑松海岸林 5 0 %间伐处理后 (密度为 15 0 0株·hm-2 ,林冠开阔度 >30 % )不会对海岸林本身造成风害 ,也不会对防护功能产生较大影响 ,但却能为黑松海岸林天然更新提供良好的生态环境 .试验结果证实了间伐产生的林隙内日本黑松的更新规律 ,提出间伐可作为同龄黑松海岸林向复层、异龄海岸林演化的主要经营措施 .     

Seed bank and vegetation composition of forest stands of varying age in central Belgium: consequences for regeneration of ancient forest vegetation

Vegetation composition differs significantly between ancientand recent forest, due to slow colonization capacity of typical forest speciesand the higher abundance of early successional species in recent forest.However, little is known about differences in persistent seed bank compositionbetween ancient and recent forest and about the interaction between seed bankand vegetation in relation with forest age. We surveyed the seed bank and theunderstorey vegetationcomposition in transects from ancient to recent forest. Seed bank and fieldlayer vegetation characteristics and similarity between seed bank andvegetationwere analysed in relation to recent forest age and distance to the ancientforest. A total of 39 species and 14,911 seedlings germinated, whichcorresponds with a seed density of 12,426 seeds/m².Total seed density is significantly higher in the youngest recent forest parcel(55 years). Also the seed bank composition in the youngest forest parceldifferssignificantly from the other parcels. After a longer period of reforestation,the seed bank approaches that of the ancient forest, suggesting seed bankdepletion, although the seed bank is permanently replenished to some extent byseed bank forming species from local disturbances. Seed bank composition doesnot change significantly with distance to the ancient forest. Similaritybetween seed bank and vegetation composition, nomatter the forest age, is very low, but decreases with increasing forest age.The most frequent species in the vegetation are absent in the seed bank andvice versa. The contribution of forest species is highin the vegetation and they almost not occur in the seed bank, while species offorest edges and clearings, and species of disturbed environments are morefrequent in the seed bank. The seed bank is mainly composed of earlysuccessional species of former forest stages or species which temporary occurinsmall-scale disturbances. The seed bank may enhance the negative effects ofearlysuccessional, mainly competitive species to the forest species richness in therecent forest. In this respect, forest management should minimise forestdisturbances, to prevent germination of competitive species form buriedseeds.     

Gap characteristics and gap regeneration in a subalpine coniferous forest on Mt Ontake,central Honshu,Japan

Gap characteristics and gap regeneration were studied in three mature stands belonging to different community types in a subalpine coniferous forest on Mt Ontake, central Honshu, Japan. Gap disturbance regimes were remarkably similar among stands studied; percentage gap area to surveyed area, gap density and mean gap size were 7.3–8.5%, 17.8–20.0 ha⁻¹ and 40.8–42.5 m², respectively. The gap size class distributions were also similar and showed a strong positive skewness with a few large and many small gaps; gaps <40m² were most frequent and gaps >200m² were rare. Forty-five to 66% of gaps were due to the death of single canopy trees. Canopy trees more often died leaving standing dead wood (40–5.7%) or broken trunks (43–49%). Shade tolerantAbies mariesii andAbies veitchii, frequently, andTsuga diversifolia, less frequently, regenerated in gaps, from advance regenerations recruited before gap formation.Picea jezoensis var.hondoensis may regenerate in gaps, from new individuals recruited after gap formation. The breakage of denseSasa coverage and the mineral soils exposed by the uprooted plants that form gaps might provide regeneration opportunities for shade intolerantBetula. Of the important species limited to the ridge site,Chamaecyparis obtusa, frequently, andThuja standishii, infrequently, regenerated from plants alreadyin situ. Regeneration ofPinus parviflora was not seen. Based on the gap characteristics and gap regeneration behaviour of each species described, stand dynamics in each stand are discussed.     

Recovery from clearing,cyclone and fire in rain forests of Tonga,South Pacific: Vegetation dynamics 1995–2005

Abstract In late 2001 a category 3 cyclone impacted forest plots that were established in Tonga in 1995, and additionally, one plot was accidentally burned by an escaped land‐clearing fire. Subsequent surveys provide observations of 10 years of forest dynamics in this poorly studied region, and the first reported observations of large interannual variation in juvenile (seedling and sapling) abundance in the western tropical Pacific. The severely disturbed (burned) plot was initially colonized by a non‐native early pioneer, Carica papaya L., but 3.5 years later a native pioneer, Macaranga harveyana (Muell. Arg.) Muell. Arg., was the most abundant tree species. The seedling layer included some long‐lived pioneers and shade‐tolerant species. Two mature forest plots affected only by the cyclone changed very little over a decade. Late‐successional shade‐tolerant species that dominated the overstory were also abundant as seedlings and saplings. This is in contrast with a 30‐ to 40‐year‐old, formerly cultivated, secondary forest plot that still shows no recruitment of late‐successional dominants, in spite of the proximity of remnant forest patches. This study suggests differing pathways of succession following shifting cultivation versus cyclone and fire disturbances in Tonga. Land use legacies appear to have a long‐lasting effect on community composition.     

Monsoon rain forest seedling dynamics, northern Australia: contrasts with regeneration in eucalypt-dominated savannas

Aim To explore: (1) the relative influences of site conditions, especially moisture relations, on pathways and rates of monsoon rain forest seedling and sapling regeneration, especially of canopy dominants, in northern Australia; and (2) contrasts between regeneration syndromes of dominant woody taxa in savannas and monsoon rain forest. Location Four monsoon rain forest sites, representative of regional major habitat and vegetation types, in Kakadu National Park, northern Australia. Methods A decadal study involved: (1) initial assessment over 2.5 years to explore within‐year variability in seed rain, dormant seed banks and seedling (< 50 cm height) dynamics; and (2) thereafter, monitoring of seedling and sapling (50 cm height to 5 cm d.b.h.) dynamics undertaken annually in the late dry season. On the basis of observations from this and other studies, regeneration syndromes of dominant monsoon rain forest taxa are contrasted with comparable information for dominant woody savanna taxa, Eucalyptus and Corymbia especially. Results Key observations from the monsoon rain forest regeneration dynamics study component are that: (1) peak seed rain inputs of rain forest taxa were observed in the wet season at perennially moist sites, whereas inputs at seasonally dry sites extended into, or peaked in, the dry season; (2) dormant soil seed banks of woody rain forest taxa were dominated by pioneer taxa, especially figs; (3) longevity of dormant seed banks of woody monsoon rain forest taxa, including figs, was expended within 3 years; (4) seedling recruitment of monsoon rain forest woody taxa was derived mostly from wet season seed rain with limited inputs from soil seed banks; (5) at all sites rain forest seedling mortality occurred mostly in the dry season; (6) rain forest seedling and sapling densities were consistently greater at moist sites; (7) recruitment from clonal reproduction was negligible, even following unplanned low intensity fires. Main conclusions By comparison with dominant savanna eucalypts, dominant monsoon rain forest taxa recruit substantially greater stocks of seedlings, but exhibit slower aerial growth and development of resprouting capacity in early years, lack lignotubers in mesic species, and lack capacity for clonal reproduction. The reliance on sexual as opposed to vegetative reproduction places monsoon rain forest taxa at significant disadvantage, especially slower growing species on seasonally dry sites, given annual–biennial fires in many north Australian savannas.     

Effects of Species, Density, Patch-type, and Season on Post-dispersal Seed Predation in a Puerto Rican Pasture1

An experimental study of seed removal of four woody species in an abandoned pasture revealed significant main effects of species, density (higher densities survived more than lower densities), and patch‐type (seeds under shrub patches survived more than in grass patches), but no effects of season. Rates of seed loss decreased with seed size across species. Significant interactions between species and density and between species and patch‐type were also observed.     

Ecological aspects of soil seed-banks in relation to bauxite mining. II. Twelve year old rehabilitated mines

Abstract Germinable seed stores were estimated for 12–13 year old rehabilitation sites in the jarrah forest over two seasons (autumn and spring). Collected soils were subjected to combinations of smoking and heating treatments before the germination procedure was commenced. The mean topsoil seed reserve to a depth of 10 cm was 1938 seeds m^?2. Of this total reserve, more than 80% was found in the upper 5 cm of soil. The topsoil seed reserve of these rehabilitation areas was almost seven times that of the adjacent native jarrah forest (292 seeds m^?2; Ward et al. 1997). There was a seasonal effect with autumn-collected soils having significantly more germinable seeds (2723 seeds m^?2) than soils collected in spring (1153 seeds m^?2). More than half (53%) of the topsoil seed reserve in rehabilitated areas was composed of annual weed species, dominated by Aira caryophyllea, Centaurium erythraea and the native Levenhookia pusilla. Of the total of 70 species identified, 13 species showed significantly higher germination in smoked trays while 11 species exhibited significantly higher germination in heated trays. Species responding to the smoking treatment tended to be annuals while those responding to the heating treatment were typically legume shrub species. Examination of the topsoil seed reserve and the vegetation present in these areas showed that while the species composition was similar between the seed store and the vegetation, there was a large difference in densities, with species occurring at much higher densities in the topsoil than in the vegetation. However, the rankings of species were significantly correlated between the topsoil seed reserve and the vegetation present at the site. The implications of these results to prescribed burning of these rehabilitated areas is discussed.     

Spatial scale and sampling resolution affect measures of gap disturbance in a lowland tropical forest: implications for understanding forest regeneration and carbon storage

Treefall gaps play an important role in tropical forest dynamics and in determining above-ground biomass (AGB). However, our understanding of gap disturbance regimes is largely based either on surveys of forest plots that are small relative to spatial variation in gap disturbance, or on satellite imagery, which cannot accurately detect small gaps. We used high-resolution light detection and ranging data from a 1500 ha forest in Panama to: (i) determine how gap disturbance parameters are influenced by study area size, and the criteria used to define gaps; and (ii) to evaluate how accurately previous ground-based canopy height sampling can determine the size and location of gaps. We found that plot-scale disturbance parameters frequently differed significantly from those measured at the landscape-level, and that canopy height thresholds used to define gaps strongly influenced the gap-size distribution, an important metric influencing AGB. Furthermore, simulated ground surveys of canopy height frequently misrepresented the true location of gaps, which may affect conclusions about how relatively small canopy gaps affect successional processes and contribute to the maintenance of diversity. Across site comparisons need to consider how gap definition, scale and spatial resolution affect characterizations of gap disturbance, and its inferred importance for carbon storage and community composition.     

更新方式对亚热带森林土壤溶液可溶性有机质数量及化学结构的影响

采用负压法对福建省三明市亚热带常绿阔叶林中米槠次生林(BF)、米槠人促更新林(RF)、米槠人工林(CP) 0～15、15～30、30～60 cm土层土壤溶液可溶性有机质(DOM)的浓度及光谱学特征进行研究.结果表明: 土壤溶液可溶性有机碳(DOC)浓度整体趋势为RF>CP>BF,而可溶性有机氮(DON)则为米槠人工林最高;且 DOC 和 DON 在表层(0～15 cm)土壤浓度皆显著高于底层(30～60 cm).芳香化指数大小为RF>CP>BF,且整体为表层较高.米槠人工林表层土壤以荧光强度高的短波峰(320 nm)为特征峰,表明其易分解物质含量高,腐殖化程度较低;而米槠人促更新林表层土壤则以宽平的中长波峰(380 nm)为特征峰,说明其腐殖化程度较高,有助于土壤肥力的储存.此外,30～60 cm深层DOM特性几乎不受森林更新方式的影响.     

Coastal sand mining of heavy mineral sands: Contestations,resistance, and ecological distribution conflicts at HMS extraction frontiers across the world

Coastal sand mining for metals involves extraction of heavy mineral sands (HMS), which are sedimentary deposits of dense minerals that accumulate in coastal environments. HMS are localized concentrations of ores such as ilmenite, rutile, leucoxene, and iron, which are sources of metals such as titanium, zircon, iron, sillimanite/kyanite, staurolite, monazite, and garnet. The applications of these metals range from everyday products such as ceramics, paint, and pigments, as well as technologically advanced applications in the airline, shipbuilding, medicine, and defense industries. HMS extraction implies strip mining of coastal areas, which are often unique biodiversity ecosystems, or fragile ecosystems built up on sandy soils or dunes. The loss of such spaces has impacts such as loss of biodiversity and habitats, salt-water intrusion into agricultural lands and increased exposure to sea level rise. As a result of the serious ecological and socioeconomic transformations at such extraction frontiers, these operations cause resistance movements across the world. This article identifies and documents 24 cases of resistance against such operations. It presents the first comprehensive database and analysis of HMS related ecological distribution conflicts.     

Gap-phase dynamics and coexistence of a long-lived pioneer and shade-tolerant tree species in the canopy of an old-growth coastal temperate rain forest of Chiloé Island, Chile

Aim A major question with regard to the ecology of temperate rain forests in south‐central Chile is how pioneer and shade‐tolerant tree species coexist in old‐growth forests. We explored the correspondence between tree regeneration dynamics and life‐history traits to explain the coexistence of these two functional types in stands apparently representing a non‐equilibrium mixture. Location This study was conducted in northern Chiloé Island, Chile (41.6° S, 73.9° W) in a temperate coastal rain forest with no evidence of stand disruption by human impact. Methods We assessed stand structure by sampling all stems within two 50 × 20 m and four 5 × 100 m plots. A 600‐m long transect, with 20 uniformly spaced sampling points, was used to quantify seedling and sapling densities, obtain increment cores, and randomly select 10 tree‐fall gaps. We used tree‐ring analysis to assess establishment periods and to relate the influences of disturbances to the regeneration dynamics of the main canopy species. Results Canopy emergent tree species were the long‐lived pioneer Eucryphia cordifolia and the shade‐tolerant Aextoxicon punctatum. Shade‐tolerant species such as Laureliopsis philippiana and several species of Myrtaceae occupied the main canopy. The stem diameter distribution for E. cordifolia was distinctly unimodal, while for A. punctatum it was multi‐modal, with all age classes represented. Myrtaceae accounted for most of the small trees. Most tree seedlings and saplings occurred beneath canopy gaps. Based on tree‐ring counts, the largest individuals of A. punctatum and E. cordifolia had minimum ages estimated to be > 350 years and > 286 years, respectively. Shade‐tolerant Myrtaceae species and L. philippiana had shorter life spans (< 200 years). Most growth releases, regardless of tree species, were moderate and have occurred continuously since 1750. Main conclusions We suggest that this coastal forest has remained largely free of stand‐disrupting disturbances for at least 450 years, without substantial changes in canopy composition. Release patterns are consistent with this hypothesis and suggest that the disturbance regime is dominated by individual tree‐fall gaps, with sporadic multiple tree falls. Long life spans, maximum height and differences in shade tolerance provide a basis for understanding the long‐term coexistence of pioneer and shade‐tolerant tree species in this coastal, old‐growth rain forest, despite the rarity of major disturbances.     

Influences of logging history and riparian forest characteristics on macroinvertebrates and brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) in headwater streams (New Hampshire, U.S.A.)

1. Logging can strongly affect stream macroinvertebrate communities, but the direction and magnitude of these effects and their implications for trout abundance are frequently region‐specific and difficult to predict. 2. In first‐order streams in northern New England (U.S.A.) representing a chronosequence of logging history (<2 to >80 years since logging), we measured riparian forest conditions, stream macroinvertebrate community characteristics and brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) abundance. Principal component analysis was used to collapse forest data into two independent variables representing variation in logging history, riparian forest structure and canopy cover. We used these data to test whether logging history and associated forest conditions were significant predictors of macroinvertebrate abundance and functional feeding group composition, and whether brook trout abundance was related to logging‐associated variation in invertebrate communities. 3. Catchments with high PC1 scores (recently logged, high‐density stands with low mean tree diameter) and low PC2 scores (low canopy cover) had significantly higher total macroinvertebrate abundance, particularly with respect to chironomid larvae (low PC2 scores) and invertebrates in the grazer functional feeding group (high PC1 scores). In contrast, proportional representation of macroinvertebrates in the shredder functional feeding group increased with time since logging and canopy cover (high PC2 scores). Brook trout density and biomass was significantly greater in young, recently logged stands (high PC1 scores) and was positively related to overall macroinvertebrate abundance. In addition, three variables – trout density, invertebrate abundance and shredder abundance – successfully discriminated between streams that were less‐impacted versus more‐impacted by forestry. 4. These results indicate that timber harvest in northern New England headwater streams may shift shredder‐dominated macroinvertebrate communities supporting low trout abundance to a grazer/chironomid‐dominated macroinvertebrate community supporting higher trout abundance. However, while local effects on brook trout abundance may be positive, these benefits may be outweighed by negative effects of brook trout on co‐occurring species, as well as impairment of habitat quality downstream. Research testing the generality of these patterns will improve understanding of how aquatic ecosystems respond to anthropogenic and natural trajectories of forest change.     

Comparison of tree sprouting in three regeneration stages of an evergreen broadleaved forest in a karst landscape, SW China

Little is known about the role of tree sprouting in the regeneration of karst forest communities. In Shilin Stone Forest Geographical Park, southwestern China, all genets with the largest stem ?3 cm DBH (diameter at breast height) and/or stumps ?3 cm BD (basal diameter) were identified and number of sprouts counted in 10 transects (10 m × 100 m) in each of three evergreen broadleaved forest stands representing three regeneration stages (about 10, 20, and 30 years old). Species with >10 genets accounted for 72.4% of the 76 species, and all of them showed evidence of sprouting. One-third to two-thirds of the genets in the three forests were sprouting, with an average of 4.0–5.7 sprouts per sprouting genet. Sprouting capability (sprouting genets/total genets) and intensity (sprouts per sprouting genet) differed significantly among the three forest stages. More than 90% of the damaged genets were sprouting. The number of sprouts in a non-damaged genet was determined by intrinsic sprouting ability, and the number of sprouts in damaged genets was determined by stump size. As the forest developed, percentage of damaged genets increased, the portion of shoots ≥3 cm DBH co-existing in a genet decreased, and the portion of shoots <3 cm DBH sprouted from damaged genet increased. Thus the role of sprouting changed from contributing recruitment in the young stage to persistence in the later stage.