Ecological studies of phytoplankton in Tai Tam Bay,Hong Kong

Of the 141 phytoplankton species found during the sampling period, the Bacillariophyceae was the most important group and included 70% of the total number of species; the Dinophyceae comprised a smaller percentage (28%) of the taxa; and only 3 chrysophyte species occurred throughout the study period. In terms of numbers of individuals, the Bacillariophyceae remained as the dominant group and contained 97% of the total numbers whereas the Dinophyceae represented only 3% of the total phytoplankton population.The most dominant diatom species was Thalassiosira allenii Takano which constituted 35% of the Bacillariophyceae group whereas the most abundant dinoflagellate was Prorocentrum gracile Schutt which represented 40% of the total Dinophyceae numbers.Chlorophyll a levels varied from 0.40 to 32.31 mg m^–3 at the surface and from 0.33 to 33.91 mg m^–3 at the bottom.Seasonal trends of phytoplankton abundance and chlorophyll a concentration were observed in the survey area with generally high peaks in summer and low values during winter months. Such variations can be attributed to the interactions between, and changes of, various environmental parameters, such as temperature, salinity and nutrient availability (particularly silicate).     

BICARBONATE UTILIZATION BY MARINE PHYTOPLANKTON SPECIES

The contribution of bicarbonate to total dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) utilization was investigated using 18 marine phytoplankton species, including members of Bacillariophyceae, Dinophyceae, Prymnesiophyceae, and Raphidophyceae, under carbon-replete or -limited conditions. Extracellular carbonic anhydrase (CA) was assayed as an indicator of extracellular CA-catalyzed HCO⁻₃ utilization. For some species, extracellular CA was constitutive, in others activity was detected under conditions of carbon limitation, and in others, even under carbon-limited conditions, activity was not detected. In species without extracellular CA, direct HCO⁻₃ uptake was investigated using a pH drift technique in a closed system, DIC measurements, and the use of the anion exchange inhibitor 4'4'-diisothiocyanatostilbene-2,2-disulfonic acid (DLDS). Three of these species (Chaetoceros compressus, Thalassiosira pseudonana, and Glenodinium foliaceum) gave a pH drift not inhibited by DIDS, but cultures of Chrysochromulina kappa, Gephrocapsa oceanica, and Coccolithus pelagicus, in which DLDS inhibited DIC uptake, did not give a pH drift. This result shows that direct HCO₃⁻ transport may occur by an anion exchange-type mechanism in some species but not others. Of the eighteen species investigated, only Heterosigma akashiwo did not have the potential for direct uptake or extracellular CA-catalyzed HCO⁻₃ utilization.     

IDENTIFICATION OF LECTINS IN THE KINETIDS OF TETRAHYMENA PYRIFORMIS

Previously we described lectin-like molecules in the ciliate Tetrahymena pyriformis; by application of synthetic neoglycoconjugates it is now shown that T. pyriformis contains considerable amounts of both a β-d-glucose- and a lactose-specific lectin. No evidence for the presence of α-d-mannose-, α-d-galactose- or of α-l-fucose-specific lectins could be obtained. The two lectins, identified in T. pyriformis, are associated with the kinetids. During cell division the lectins disappear or become masked in the fission furrow. Therefore, we assume that these lectins are involved in the organization of the distribution pattern of the kinetids during cell division perhaps due to lectin—glycoprotein interactions.     

Purification and cDNA cloning of a lectin and a lectin-like protein from Apios americana Medikus tubers

An Apios americana lectin (AAL) and a lectin-like protein (AALP) were purified from tubers by chromatography on Butyl-Cellulofine, ovomucoid-Cellulofine, and DEAE-Cellulofine columns. AAL showed strong hemagglutinating activity toward chicken and goose erythrocytes, but AALP showed no such activity toward any of the erythrocytes tested. The hemagglutinating activity of AAL was not inhibited by mono- or disaccharides, but was inhibited by glycoproteins, such as asialofetuin and ovomucoid, suggesting that AAL is an oligosaccharide-specific lectin. The cDNAs of AAL and AALP consist of 1,093 and 1,104 nucleotides and encode proteins of 302 and 274 amino acid residues, respectively. Both amino acid sequences showed high similarity to known legume lectins, and those of their amino acids involved in carbohydrate and metal binding were conserved.     

Isolation and characterization of lactose-binding lectins from the venoms of the snakes Lachesis muta and Dendroaspis jamesonii

Two lectins have been isolated: one from the venom of Lachesis muta (bushmaster lectin) and one from Dendroaspis jamesonii venom (Jameson's mamba lectin). The lectin from bushmaster venom (BML) is similar to the lactose-binding lectins previously isolated from snake venoms (Gartner et al. (1980) FEBS Lett. 117, 13-16; Gartner & Ogilvie (1984) Biochem. J. 224, 301-307) in that it is calcium-dependent, lactose inhibitable, and is a dimer of molecular weight 28,000. In contrast, the lactose-blockable lectin from Jameson's mamba venom (JML) has an apparent molecular weight of 26,000 and agglutinates erythrocytes in the presence of EDTA. The absorption spectra of BML were affected by the binding of calcium, or calcium and lactose to the lectin. However, JML spectra were not affected by these conditions. While the hemagglutination activity of each of the previously described lactose-binding snake venom lectins is inhibited by reducing agent, the activities of BML and JML are not affected by reducing agent. Antiserum against bushmaster lectin cross-reacts with thrombolectin, cottonmouth lectin (CML), rattlesnake lectin (RSL), and copperhead lectin (CuHL) but not lectin from Jameson's mamba venom. This evidence plus a comparison of atomic absorption spectra, isoelectric points and amino acid analyses of the lectins demonstrate that JML and BML are different from thrombolectin, CML, RSL, and CuHL.     

Some common properties of lectins from marine algae

Twelve kinds of lectins isolated from four species of marine algae, Boodlea coacta (Chlorophyta) and Hypnea japonica, Carpopeltis flabellata and Solieria robusta (Rhodophyta), were compared for their chemical and biological properties. These lectins were proteins or glycoproteins, similar to terrestrial plant lectins. However, unlike most terrestrial plant lectins, they had a small molecular size (4,200 to 25,000 daltons), were mostly monomeric, and had no affinity for monosaccharides. They strongly agglutinated trypsin-treated rabbit erythrocytes, and their activities commonly were inhibited by glycoproteins bearing N-glycans. From hemagglutination-inhibition tests with various glycoproteins and related compounds, it was found that B. coacta lectins recognize high-mannose N-glycans; H. japonica lectins complex N-glycans, and C. flabellata and S. robusta lectins recognize both types of N-glycans.     

Azolla fern lectins that specifically recognize endosymbiotic cyanobacteria

Lectins were extracted from whole fern grindings ofAzolla pinnata (AP) andAzolla filiculoides (AF) by precipitation with ammonium sulfate to 20% of saturation. At high pH both lectins dissociate into inactive subunits (5000 mol wt) which reassociate into active aggregates (>500,000 mol wt) following concentration by ammonium sulfate precipitation or freezing and thawing. Although amino sugars inhibited hemagglutinating activity of both AP and AF lectins,d-fructose was inhibitory only to the AP lectin hemagglutinating activity, andd-galactose was slightly inhibitory to the AP lectin but not to the AF lectin. Both lectins exhibited specificity for freshly extracted cyanobionts from homologous fern species: AP lectin agglutinated cyanobiont filaments from AP, but not from AF; AF lectin agglutinated cyanobiont filaments from AF, but not AP. Neither lectin reacted with cultured cyanobionts from either fern species. Hemagglutinating titers were likewise reduced by adsorption of these lectins to homologous cyanobiont cells. This report provides strong suggestive evidence for specificity in this N-fixing symbiosis between aquatic fern and cyanobacterium.     

The phytoplankton of the internal Gulf of Olbia (North-East Sardinia) between July 1992 and July 1993

Abstract

The density variations and phytoplankton structure of the internal Gulf of Olbia (north-east Sardinia) from July 1992 to July 1993 are described.

The most important class was the Bacillariophyceae, because it accounted for the maximum values and because it dominated over about one-third of the study cycle. The picoplankton was present practically all the year round with the greatest development from September to March. Prymnesiophyceae, Dinophyceae, Cyanophyceae and Euglenophyceae were found more numerously in summer and autumn 1992 than in the rest of the year, while Bacillariophyceae, Chlorophyceae and Chrysophyceae were mostly found in spring and summer 1993.

Among the 16 species that expressed the highest mean yearly density values (greater than 1×10⁴ cell I^-1), 10 were Bacillariophyceae, 2 Dinophyceae, 3 Chrysophyceae and 1 Chlorophycea. The Bacillariophyceae have also been the dominant class in floristic terms (49 taxa on 95 total), followed by the Dinophyceae (26), the Chlorophyceae (5), the Chrysophyceae (5), the Prymnesiophyceae (4), the Prasinophyceae (2), the Euglenophyceae (2) and the Cyanophyceae (2).     

Cluster analysis on the lectin binding patterns of marine microalgae

Fluorescent lectin binding patterns constructed using the Dollopparsimony method were analyzed to study the relationship ofGymnodiniales, the genus Prorocentrum, the genus Alexandriumand Bacillariophyceae. In Gymnodiniales, all of the tested Koreanstrains fluoresced with concanavalin A, PEA and soybean agglutinin;however, the lectins of LBL and pokeweed mitogen did not bind.The strains from Korea, New Zealand and Spain had almost thesame topology and divided into three clusters. The cluster positionof Korean strains was much closer to the New Zealand strainsthan to the Spanish strains. Many species of the genus Prorocentrumshowed an opposite pattern to the Gymnodiniales. In the generaAlexandrium and Prorocentrum, the Korean strains were relativelycloser to the Spanish strains than to the New Zealand strains.On the other hand, most species in the Bacillariophyceae didnot show any binding patterns, indicating the lack of sugarmoieties on the cell surfaces regardless of geographical separation.The centric diatoms Leptocylindrus danicus and Thalassiosirasubtilis showed distant cluster relationships to group A (Thalassiosirarotula, Nitzschia sp., Stephanopyxis turris, Coscinodiscus gigas,Navicula sigma) and group B (Skeletonema costatum, Eucampiazodiacus, Rhizosolenia pungens). These results suggest thatlectin binding patterns might be useful in understanding therelationship of discriminating microalgae between geographicallydistant sites.     

Structural and biological characterization of Nattectin, a new C-type lectin from the venomous fish Thalassophryne nattereri

Lectins are glycan-binding receptors that recognize glycan epitopes on foreign pathogens and in the host systems. They can be involved in functions that include innate immunity, development, immune regulation and homeostasis. Several lectins have been purified and characterized from fish species. In this work, using cation-exchange chromatography, a galactose-specific lectin belonging to the family of C-type lectins was isolated from the venom of the Brazilian venomous fish Thalassophryne nattereri. Nattectin is a basic, non-glycosilated, 15 kDa monomeric protein. It exhibits hemagglutination activity that is independent of Ca²⁺. We also demonstrated a lectin activity for Nattectin in the innate immune system, especially in neutrophil mobilization in mice, indicating that marine organisms are source of immunomodulator agents.     

Screening and preliminary characterization of hemagglutinins in Vietnamese marine algae

Extracts from 44 species of Vietnamese marine algae, including 15 Chlorophyta, 18 Rhodophyta and 11 Phaeophyta species, were examined for hemagglutination activity with a variety of different animal and human erythrocytes that were untreated or treated with enzymes. Almost all extracts showed activity toward at least one type of erythrocytes, although those from three Chlorophyta and two Rhodophyta species showed no hemagglutination with any type of erythrocytes examined. Strong activity was detected in extracts from two Chlorophyta (Anadyomene plicata and Avrainvillea erecta) and four Rhodophyta species (Gracilaria eucheumatoides, Gracilaria salicornia, Kappaphycus alvarezii, and Kappaphycus striatum) with enzyme-treated rabbit and sheep erythrocytes. The hemagglutinins of seven Chlorophyta and eight Rhodophyta species were examined for sugar-binding specificity, pH- and temperature-stability, and divalent cation-independency of hemagglutination using ammonium sulfate-precipitates prepared from their extracts. In a hemagglutination-inhibition test with various monosaccharides and glycoproteins, none of the hemagglutinins had affinity for monosaccharides, except the Codium arabicum and Gracilaria euchematoides hemagglutinins, whose activities were inhibited by both N-acetyl-d-galactosamine and N-acetyl-d-glucosamine. On the other hand, all of the hemagglutinins activities were inhibited by some glycoproteins. The inhibition profiles with glycoproteins were different depending on hemagglutinin species, and suggest the presence of lectins specific for high mannose N-glycans, complex N-glycans, or O-glycans. The activities of these algal hemagglutinins were stable over a wide range of pH and temperature, and independent of the presence of divalent cations. These results indicate that Vietnamese marine algae are a good source of novel and useful lectins.     

Mechanistic insight into pertussis toxin and lectin signaling using T cells engineered to express a CD8α/CD3ζ chimeric receptor

Mammalian cell-surface receptors typically display N- or O-linked glycans added post-translationally. Plant lectins such as phytohemagluttinin (PHA) can activate the T cell receptor (TCR) and other cell-surface receptors by binding to glycans and initiating receptor cross-linking. Pathogenic microorganisms such as Bordetella pertussis also express proteins with lectin-like activities. Similar to plant lectins, pertussis toxin (PTx) can activate the TCR and bind to a variety of glycans. However, whether the lectin-like activity of PTx is responsible for its ability to activate TCR signaling has not been formally proven. Here we examined the ability of PTx and a panel of lectins to activate the TCR or a CD8α/CD3ζ chimeric receptor (termed CD8ζ). We demonstrate that CD8ζ rescues PTx-induced signaling events lacking in TCR null cells. This result indicates that CD8ζ can substitute for TCR and supports the hypothesis that PTxB (functioning as a lectin) stimulates signaling via receptor cross-linking rather than by binding to a specific epitope on the TCR. Moreover, PTx is able to activate signaling by binding either N-linked or O-linked glycan-modified receptors as the TCR displays N-linked glycans while CD8ζ displays O-linked glycans. Finally, studies with a diverse panel of lectins indicate that the signaling activity of the lectins does not always correlate with the biochemical reports of ligand preferences. Comparison of lectin signaling through TCR or CD8ζ allows us to better define the structural and functional properties of lectin-glycan interactions using a biologically based signaling readout.     

Comparison of developmentally regulated lectins from three species of cellular slime mold

Extracts of the cohesive forms of the cellular slime molds Dictyostelium discoideum, Dictyostelium mucoroides and Dictyostelium purpureum contain lectin activity, assayed as hemagglutination activity. The lectin activity from each species binds quantitatively to Sepharose 4B and can be eluted with d-galactose. The resultant purified lectins are abundant proteins representing, in the case of D. purpureum, up to 5% of the total soluble protein of cohesive cells. The preparations from each species are similar but distinct in amino acid composition and other properties. Each purified preparation gives rise to two protein bands on sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis with the major band representing as little at 77% (D. purpureum) and as much as 96% (D. mucoroides) of the total protein in the two bands. The molecular weights of the pair of bands were different for each species, ranging between about 23 000 and 26 000. The two bands are believed to represent subunits of lectins made up of either one or a combination of these two proteins. The apparent molecular weights of the purified lectin activities determined by sucrose density gradient centrifugation were all in the range of 100 000. $\text{N-}\text{Acetyl-}\text{d}\text{-galactosamine}$ was a potent inhibitor of the hemagglutination activity of each preparation; but there were some differences in the relative inhibitory potency of a number of other saccharides. Antiserum raised against each preparation, as well as univalent antibody fragments derived from these antisera, reacted best with the antigens to which they were raised; but showed some cross reaction measured both by precipitin reactions and by inhibition of hemagglutination activity of the purified lectins. The differences between the lectins from the different species could be trivial; but they also could be important for defining specific properties of these three species which reliably segregate into colonies of a single species when grown in mixed culture.     

Cultivar-Specific Carbohydrate-Binding Properties of Lectins from Broad-Bean Seeds

Lectins were isolated and purified from three broad bean (Vicia faba L.) cultivars differing in the effectiveness of their symbiosis with root nodule bacteria (Rhizobium leguminosarum bv. viciae). From seeds of symbiotically effective cvs. Aushra and Daiva, we isolated only one lectin from each cultivar, whereas two lectins, Yu-1 and Yu-2, were isolated from seeds of symbiotically ineffective cv. Yugeva. Lectins from cvs. Aushra and Daiva were more active than lectins from cv. Yugeva and exhibited similar carbohydrate specificity. Methyl--D-mannopyranoside and trehalose were the most potent inhibitors of their hemagglutination activity. Lectin Yu-1 resembled them in its carbohydrate-binding properties. However, D-mannose, trehalose, and melecitose were its most effective inhibitors. Lectin Yu-2 differed substantially from these lectins. It exhibited an affinity for D-glucuronic acid, D-glucosamine, and 2-deoxy-D-glucose. In addition, it could interact with carbohydrates of the galactose family (2-deoxy-D-galactose, D-galactosamine, and lactose) and also with D-xylose and 2-deoxy-D-talose. Thus, lectins from cvs. Aushra and Daiva and also Yu-1 can be considered D-mannose/D-glucose-specific lectins, whereas Yu-2 lectin exhibited a combined carbohydrate specificity. The affinity of Yu-1 and Yu-2 lectins for their natural receptors, exopolysaccharides and lipopolysaccharides of broad-bean nodule bacteria, was twice as low as that of lectins from cvs. Aushra and Daiva. We believe that properties of seed lectins are an important cultivar-specific trait that determines host-plant (broad beans) specificity during the establishment of legume–rhizobia symbiosis.     

Effect of lectins on endocytosis and secretion of lysosomal enzymes by cultured fibroblasts.

1. Pretreatment of cultured human skin fibroblasts with convanavalin A and wheat germ agglutinin inhibited endocytosis of alpha-N-acetylglucosaminidase and increased extracellular accumulation of beta-N-acetylglucosaminidase. 2. These effects were dose-dependent, reversible and could be prevented by haptenic carbohydrates, such as methyl alpha-D-mannoside or N-acetylglucosamine. 3. Pretreatment of fibroblasts with di- and monovalent succinylated concanavalin A inhibited alpha-N-acetylglucosaminidase endocytosis, but had no effect on extracellular beta-N-acetylglucosaminidase accumulation. 4. Concanavalin A-alpha-N-acetylglucosaminidase complexes become internalized via the recognition of the lectin. Complex formation prevents recognition of the phosphorylated carbohydrate on lysosomal enzymes that interacts with cell surface receptors specific for lysosomal enzymes. The inhibitory effect of all lectins tested on lysosomal enzyme endocytosis suggests that the cell surface receptors for lysosomal enzymes interact either directly with lectins or are closely linked to lectin receptors. The effect of polyvalent lectins on extracellular lysosomal enzyme accumulation is ascribed to their alteration of membrane fluidity.     

Lectins from seeds of Crotalaria pallida (smooth rattlebox)

A lectin from the seeds of Crotalaria pallida (CPL), with an apparent molecular mass of 30 kDa, determined by SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, showed human type A and B erythrocytes agglutination activity, which is inhibited by raffinose and galactose. The lectin requirement for divalent cation was demonstrated with EDTA/EGTA blocking hemagglutination activity. Although the N-terminal amino acid sequence of CPL is identical to another lectin from Crotalaria striata, which is taxonomically synonymous to Crotalaria pallida, these lectins differ in amino acid composition and hemagglutination properties.     

A mixed hemagglutination test for binding of glycosylated cytochemical markers

A sensitive hemagglutination test which uses simultaneously erythrocytes from two different species was developed to test the ability of glycosylated cytochemical markers to interact with membrane-bound lectins. The interaction between galactose-terminated glycoconjugates and Ricinus communis agglutinin 120 was chosen for exemplification. The lectin was covalently attached to the surface of sheep red blood cells, thus rendering them highly agglutinating for human erythrocytes. Small amounts of a large variety of terminal galactose-containing molecules inhibited the hemagglutination. The assay proved to be particularly useful for testing colloidal gold-adsorbed glycoconjugates of low protein concentration.     

On the control of HAB species using low biosurfactant concentrations

Biosurfactants have been suggested as a method to control harmful algal blooms (HABs), but warrant further and more in-depth investigation. Here we have investigated the algicidal effect of a biosurfactant produced by the bacterium Pseudomonas aeruginosa on five diverse marine and freshwater HAB species that have not been tested previously. These include Alexandrium minutum (Dinophycaee), Karenia brevis (Dinophyceae), Pseudonitzschia sp. (Bacillariophyceae), in marine ecosystems, and Gonyostomum semen (Raphidophyceae) and Microcystis aeruginosa (Cyanophyecae) in freshwater. We examined not only lethal but also sub-lethal effects of the biosurfactant. In addition, the effect of the biosurfactant on Daphnia was tested. Our conclusions were that very low biosurfactant concentrations (5 μg mL⁻¹) decreased both the photosynthesis efficiency and the cell viability and that higher concentrations (50 μg mL⁻¹) had lethal effects in four of the five HAB species tested. The low concentrations employed in this study and the diversity of HAB genera tested suggest that biosurfactants may be used to either control initial algal blooms without causing negative side effect to the ecosystem, or to provoke lethal effects when necessary.     

DNA NUCLEOSIDE COMPOSITION AND METHYLATION IN SEVERAL SPECIES OF MICROALGAE1

Total DNA was isolated from 10 species of microalgae, including representatives of the Chlorophyceae (Chlorella ellipsoidea, Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, and Monoraphidium minutum), Bacillariophyceae (Cyclotella cryptica, Navicula saprophila, Nitzschia pusilla, and Phaeodactylum tricornutum), Charophyceae (Stichococcus sp.), Dinophyceae (Crypthecodinium cohnii), and Prasinophyceae (Tetraselmis suecica). Control samples of Escherichia coli and calf thymus DNA were also analyzed. The nucleoside base composition of each DNA sample was determined by reversed-phase high performance liquid chromatography. All samples contained 5-methyldeoxycytidine, although at widely varying levels. In M. minutum, about one-third of the cytidine residues were methylated. Restriction analysis supported this high degree of methylation in M. minutum and suggested that methylation is biased toward 5′-CG dinucleotides. The guanosine + cytosine (GC) contents of the green algae were, with the exception of Stichococcus sp., consistently higher than those of the diatoms. Monoraphidium minutum exhibited an extremely high GC content of 71%. Such a value is rare among eukaryotic organisms and might indicate an unusual codon usage. This work is important for developing strategies for transformation and gene cloning in these algae.     

CHARACTERIZATION OF MORPHOSPECIES AND STRAINS OF MICROCYSTIS (CYANOBACTERIA) FROM NATURAL POPULATIONS AND LABORATORY CLONES USING CELL PROBES (LECTINS AND ANTIBODIES)1

The genus Microcystis (cyanobacteria) includes toxic and bloom-forming morphotypes which are usually arranged into species based on morphological features. Immunofluorescence assays using polyclonal and preadsorbed antibodies, as well as FITC-labebd lectins were used to characterize three morphospecies of Microcystis (M. viridis, M. wesenbergii, and M. aeruginosa) from natural populations (several lakes/reservoirs in Denmark and Spain) and laboratory clones. The cell probes used were unaffected by the different phases of the cell division cycle, growth phase, or environmental factors, such as culture medium, light, or temperature. Anhbody and lectin binding patterns were specific to each clone. In nature, the cell probes were useful tools to characterize Microcystis populations. Antibodies and lectins revealed geographic differentiation within the same morphospecies. Differentiation was moderate among nearby locales and intensified among areas distant from one another. Microcystis aeruginosa from Spain has very different cell surface antigens and lectin binding sites than M. aeruginosa from Denmark. A taxonomy of Microcystis based on cell probes reveals some discrepancies with classical morphospecies. The binding affinities were more closely related to the geographic origin of the tested material than to the morphospecies identification. Different morphospecies from the same lake in some cases were more similar than the same morphospecies from different lakes. Microcystis viridis and M. aeruginosa from Danish lakes appeared to be closely related species, whereas M. wesenbergii emerged as a different species.