Patterns of Seed Dispersal and Dispersal Failure in a Hawaiian Dry Forest Having Only Introduced Birds

Dry forests are among the most endangered natural communities in the Hawaiian Islands. Most have been reduced to isolated trees and small forest fragments in which native tree species reproduce poorly. The replacement of native birds by introduced generalists may be contributing to dry forest decline through modification of seed dispersal patterns. To document seed dispersal by introduced birds, we conducted foraging observations on fleshy-fruited trees and measured seed rain under trees and in adjacent open areas for 1 year in a dry forest dominated by native trees. Although trees covered only 15.2 percent of the study area, 96.9 percent of the bird-dispersed seeds were deposited beneath them. The Japanese white-eye (Zosterops japonicus) was the principal dispersal agent. Among bird-dispersed seeds, those of the invasive tree Bocconia frutescens accounted for 75 percent of all seeds collected beneath trees (14.8 seeds/m²/yr) and the invasive shrub Lantana camara accounted for 17 percent. Although nearly 60 percent of the reserve's native woody species possess fleshy fruits, introduced birds rarely disperse their seeds. Native trees accounted for <8 percent of all bird-dispersed seeds and are consequently experiencing dispersal failure by falling directly under parent trees. Smaller-seeded non-native plants, in contrast, may be benefiting from dispersal by introduced birds. Current dispersal patterns suggest that these readily disseminated non-native plants may eventually replace the remaining native flora.     

Pioneers and Perches—Promising Restoration Methods for Degraded Renosterveld Habitats?

Areas of abandoned agricultural fields are globally increasing and are also common features in the Cape Lowlands of South Africa. Previous restoration attempts in degraded West Coast renosterveld, a Mediterranean‐climate shrubland, have attained limited success and therefore novel approaches are needed for this area. The study reports on two restoration experiments, designed to re‐introduce key plant functional types back into this critically endangered habitat. The first experiment concentrated on a common pioneer species in renosterveld vegetation, Otholobium hirtum. Although in vitro experiments showed a significantly elevated germination response after scarification, in vivo experiments failed to produce establishment in an abandoned field. The second restoration experiment focused on bush clumps, a sub‐type of renosterveld vegetation that is characterized by broad‐leaved shrubs with fleshy bird‐dispersed diaspores. The effect of artificial bird perches and their potential to enhance diaspore dispersal by frugivorous birds in two abandoned field communities was tested. Results showed a significant increase in seed dispersal at artificial perch sites. However, in the next fruiting season, and after perch removal, seed germination and establishment in abandoned fields was not successful. The experiments revealed that restoration using early‐succession species and natural dispersal vectors appear not to produce demonstrable benefits, despite their promising potential and pre‐testing of effectiveness. Before launching large‐scale restoration programs in abandoned fields of renosterveld, preliminary studies in‐field are strongly recommended.     

鸟类传播种子对几种树篱中侵入植物多样性的影响

2001年4月至2003年11月,在南京中山植物园内调查了冬青卫矛(Euonymus japonicus)、日本珊瑚树(Viburnum awabuki)和溲疏(Deutzia scabra)3种树篱,以及位于不同生境的2个黄杨(Buxus microphyllavar.sinica)树篱中侵入生长的杂草及杂树种类,并选择3 km外南京农业大学实验楼周围的冬青卫茅树篱作为参照。在6个树篱类型中调查到侵入生长的种子植物共计1230株,分隶于42科57属70种植物。其中适应于鸟类传播的植物有55种1047株植物;适应于风力传播的植物有10种161株植物;传播媒介不明的植物有5种22株植物。各树篱类型中,适应于鸟类传播种子的侵入植物种类数目显著多于风力传播的植物种类(t=5.086,df=10,p<0.0001)和种子传播媒介不明的植物种类(t=8.446,df=10,p<0.0001),但各树篱中适应于风力传播的侵入植物与种子传播媒介不明的植物在种类数目上无显著差异(t=1.977,df=10,p=0.076)。南京中山植物园的5个树篱类型中,适应于鸟类传播的侵入植物物种多样性的Shannon-Wiener指数都较高,为2.151至2.917,平均2.671±0.306,并且种类数目也较多,为15~36种,平均25.6±8.1种。而南京农业大学内冬青卫茅树篱的物种多样性指数最低,为1.679,并且种类数目也最少,为12种。Bray-Curtis相似性指数的聚类分析结果显示,不同树篱类型中适应于鸟类传播种子的侵入植物组成的相似性主要受到树篱周围的种子源及其距离、食果鸟类、人为干扰活动等生境因子的影响,而非简单取决于树篱种类本身。鸟类传播种子增加了单一树种构成的树篱中的种子植物多样性,同时也对树篱的景观产生了一定的不利影响,不过人工对树篱的日常修剪等管护措施严格限制了这些侵入植物实生苗及小树的正常生长。研究结果反映出种子源、鸟类传播种子和灌丛在促进植物群落的发展和演替过程中具有重要的生态意义。     

Implications of newly-formed seed-dispersal mutualisms between birds and introduced plants in northern California,USA

I examined the role of bird dispersal in invasiveness of three non-native plant species in California, USA: Triadica sebifera, Ligustrum lucidum, and Olea europaea. I selected these species because their invasiveness in California is uncertain, but a survey of ornithologists highlighted them as likely bird-dispersed. I quantified bird frugivory of these plants, compared them with a native species (Heteromeles arbutifolia), and explored the management implications of dispersal mutualisms for these and other incipient invasive plants. Fruit removal by birds was sufficient to permit spread for all study species. Seed dispersers (rather than seed predators) and pulse feeders (flocking species with potential for long distance dispersal) performed most fruit removal for the non-native species, a pattern indicative of an effective dispersal regime. The number of fruiting trees per stand was a significant predictor of bird visitation. Founding population size may thus be important in management of invasive, bird-dispersed plants. Disperser-defined niches were relatively narrow because a few disperser species performed the majority of fruit removal from study trees, but each fruit species was consumed by a variety of potential dispersers. This results in strong pairwise niche overlap between some plant species. Ordinated by bird use, study site-species combinations clustered more by geographic location than by plant species, emphasizing the opportunistic nature of bird foraging. None of the non-native focal plant species appears dispersal limited, and all have formed novel mutualisms in California. It is possible that these plants are now in lag phases preceding bird-mediated invasion. Consideration of bird dispersal when evaluating invasiveness is therefore an imperative.     

More Ecology is Needed to Restore Mediterranean Ecosystems: A Reply to Valladares and Gianoli

Valladares and Gianoli (2007) tried to answer a key question, “how much ecology do we need to know to restore Mediterranean ecosystems?” by focusing on (1) plant–plant interactions; (2) environmental heterogeneity and the potential adaptation of transplanted plants; and (3) phenotypic plasticity of the planted species. We consider their choice of topics incomplete and potentially misleading because (1) it is clearly biased toward a narrow set of research topics (phenotypic plasticity, facilitation, and climate change); (2) it assumes that active restoration, and specifically revegetation, is needed; and (3) it conveys a false perception that other basic ecological aspects of Mediterranean ecosystems are sufficiently known. Instead, we review the current knowledge on seed dispersal, succession, and ecosystem functioning for Mediterranean ecosystems. We argue that decades of research on these topics have yielded few practical guidelines for restoration, something that needs to be urgently corrected. First, the current “establishment limitation paradigm” for plant recruitment does not acknowledge the role of dispersal limitation at large spatial scales. More attention should be paid to nucleation processes and directed seed dispersal mediated by animals. Second, studies of vegetation dynamics and succession in the Mediterranean have led to an overly simplistic view of successional dynamics. How fast and deterministic succession is remains mostly unexplored; long‐term monitoring of successional dynamics at different spatial scales is urgently needed. Third, information on the functional status of Mediterranean ecosystems is required to identify processes hindering natural recovery after disturbances and to set priorities on the areas and ecosystem components to be restored.     

Effects of bird seed dispersal on diversity of the invaded plants in several hedge types

The plants that invaded as weeds including woody weeds were surveyed in three hedge types, Euonymus japonicus(HEa), Viburnum awabuki (HV), and Deutzia scabra (HD), respectively, and two hedge types, Buxus microphylla var. sinica (HBa, HBb) cultivated in different habitats in Nanjing Botanical Garden Mem. Sun Yat-Sen (NBG), Nanjing of East China, from April 2001 to November 2002. Another hedge type, Euonymus japonicus (HEb) was also investigated as a contrast, cultivated in Nanjing Agricultural University (NAU), about 3 km away from NBG, between April and November 2003. In total, 1230 plant indi-viduals were found to have invaded these six hedge types, and were identified as belonging to 70 species in 57 genera and 42 fami-lies. Among these plants, 1047 individuals of 55 species were adapted for bird seed dispersal, and 161 individuals of 10 species were adapted for wind seed dispersal, but the seed dispersal mode of the other 22 individuals of five species was uncertain. Among the six hedge types, we found a significantly higher occurrence of bird-dispersed plant species than that of wind-dispersed species ( t = 5.086, df = 10, P < 0.0001) or that of species with the unknown dispersal mode ( t = 8.446, df = 10, P < 0.0001). However, the difference of occurrence between wind-dispersed species and species with the unknown dispersal mode was not significant ( t = 1.977, df = 10, P = 0.076). The number of bird-dispersed plant species recorded in the five hedge types of NBG varied from 15 to 36, M ± SD = 25.6 ± 8.1, and the Shannon-Wiener indices were between 2.151 and 2.917, M ± SD = 2.671 ± 0.306. In contrast with NBG, only 12 species of bird-dispersed plants occurred in the hedge of NAU, with a lower Shannon-Wiener index of 1.679. As a result of cluster analysis, based on Bray-Curtis similarity indices of the invaded plant species adapted for bird seed dispersal, the similarity of species composition of bird-dispersed plants between hedges was influenced to a large extent by the surrounding habitat characteristics, e.g., locality, seed source diversity, distances from seed sources, seed dispersing birds, and frequency of human disturbance, rather than simply being dependent on the hedge tree species themselves. This research suggests that hedges could attract birds to utilize their interior shelter as habitats, and therefore, would have enhanced the deposition of bird-dispersed seeds, as well as have favored seed-ling survival under hedges. Consequently, avian seed dispersal has enriched the species composition of each of the six hedge types consisting of just a single tree species. Although survival and colonization of the migrated plants will inevitably cause some influ-ences on the aesthetic view of hedges, these invaded weeds or woody weeds could be managed and suppressed through regular arti-ficial pruning and by eradication. The results indicate the ecological significance of seed sources, bird seed dispersal, and shrub patches in promoting the successional development of woody vegetation.     

Early plant succession in two abandoned cut-over peatland areas

Initial stages of plant succession (from 0 to 8 or 9 yr) were studied on abandoned peat harvest sites of two adjacent areas in Finland. At the Mustasuo area only 13 field layer species, all perennials, and 3 ground layer species became established during that period and species composition stayed relatively constant. All species occurred sparsely with low biomass. The Riitasuo area was colonized by 43 field layer and 19 ground layer species during the first 8 yr of succession. In that area the originally plantless sites were totally covered by plants within a few years. Many of the first species to arrive were annuals, most of which were soon replaced by perennial species. The great differences between the two areas in the rate and pattern of early succession are suggested to arise from differences in the seed sources and in the physical and chemical characteristics of the soil. The areas were found to differ especially by the thickness of the remaining peat layer, by the particle size distribution of the peat soil and by the contents of nitrate and ammonium nitrogen of the soil.     

Species and functional responses of ants to inter-row tillage and vegetation in organic Mediterranean vineyards

Ants are arthropods providing crucial ecosystem services such as soil structuring, nutrient cycling, seed dispersal and pest predation. Thus, their abundance and diversity need to be considered in approaches to improve sustainability of land use such as Mediterranean viticulture. In our study, we tested whether (1) inter-row vegetation and the absence of tillage increase the species richness and/or functional diversity of ants in vineyards and (2) ground cover vegetation drives ant species composition. We included 23 Mediterranean organic vineyards in our analyses and distinguished three types of inter-row management: all inter-rows tilled, half of the inter-rows tilled, and all inter-rows are untilled and covered by vegetation. The occurrence of ant species was analysed in six pitfall traps per vineyard. Around each trap, the floristic composition of inter-row vegetation was analysed in 2 × 2 m² plots. We found that inter-row tillage significantly affected ant species richness, being higher in partially than in fully tilled vineyards whereas untilled vineyards were not different from the other tillage types. Grass cover and the perennial/annual rate were positively correlated with ant species richness. Ant functional diversity and the frequency of most predatory ants were not correlated neither with plant functional groups nor with tillage type. In conclusion, ant communities benefit from inter-row vegetation and/or absence of soil disturbance but partial inter-row tillage of vineyards may be tolerated and even benefit several species. In particular, grasses and perennial plant species favour ants in our system and need to be considered in inter-row sowing.     

Species richness and cover along a 60-year chronosequence in old-fields of southeastern Spain

We analyse changes in plant cover and species richness along a 60-year chronosequence in semi-arid Mediterranean old-fields of southeastern Spain. The objectives were: (i) to study patterns of species richness along the abandonment gradient in semi-arid conditions (e.g., to test the “humped-back model” in our system); (ii) to test whether different broad life forms (annuals, forbs, grasses and woody species) showed different patterns along the abandonment gradient, and (iii) to examine to what extent plants with different dispersal strategies dominate at different stages of succession. The explained variance of the regression relating species richness to years since abandonment is improved when considering different life forms. The results suggest that cover and richness of different functional groups show a non-linear unimodal (often positive-skewed) pattern along the gradient (age since abandonment). Maximum total richness is found at young stages of abandonment (<20 years), when most life forms and dispersal strategies coexist. Annuals and perennial forbs reached their maximum richness during the first 10 years of abandonment. About 45% of total woody species richness is reached at this time as a consequence of early colonization of zoochorous shrubs. While the results showed a tendency towards a life-form replacement sequence, the pattern is not so clear when looking at the different dispersal strategies. The results complement previous results in Mediterranean conditions and emphasise the importance of considering different functional types when studying successional patterns. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Dispersal traits as indicators of vegetation dynamics in long-term old-field succession

Succession is a key ecological process that supports our understanding of community assembly and biotic interactions. Dispersal potential and dispersal strategies, such as wind- or animal-dispersal, have been assumed to be highly relevant for the success of plant species during succession. However, research yielded varying results on changes in dispersal modes between successional stages. Here, we test the hypotheses that (a) vascular plant species that use a number of dispersal modes dominate in early stages of succession while species specialized on one/few dispersal modes increase in abundance towards later stages of succession; (b) species well adapted to wind-dispersal (anemochory) will peak in abundance in early successional stages and (c) species well adapted to adhesive dispersal (epizoochory) will increase with proceeding succession. We test these hypotheses in four sites within agriculturally dominated landscapes in Germany. Agricultural use in these sites was abandoned 20–28 years ago, leaving them to secondary succession. Sites have been monitored for plant biodiversity ever since. We analyze changes in plant species richness and abundance, number of dispersal modes and two ranking indices for wind- and adhesive dispersal by applying generalized linear mixed-effect models. We used both abundance-weighted and unweighted dispersal traits in order to gain a comprehensive picture of successional developments. Hypothesis (a) was supported by unweighted but not abundance-weighted data. Anemochory showed no consistent changes across sites. In contrast, epizoochory (especially when not weighted by abundance) turned out to be an indicator of the transition from early to mid-successional stages. It increased for the first 9–16 years of succession but declined afterwards. Species richness showed an opposing pattern, while species abundance increased asymptotically. We suggest that plant-animal interactions play a key role in mediating these processes: By importing seeds of highly competitive plant species, animals are likely to promote the increasing abundance of a few dominant, highly epizoochorous species. These species outcompete weak competitors and species richness decreases. However, animals should as well promote the subsequent increase of species richness by disturbing the sites and creating small open patches. These patches are colonized by weaker competitors that are not necessarily dispersed by animals. The changes in the presence of epizoochorous species indicate the importance of plant traits and related plant–animal interactions in the succession of plant communities.     

Old-field successional dynamics on the Inland Pampa,Argentina

Abstract. The first 10 yr of old-field successional dynamics on the Argentine Inland Pampa were studied on a series of adjacent plots established consecutively between 1978 and 1989. We examined differences in species abundance patterns among plots in order to detect the spatial and temporal variability of succession. Perennial grasses steadily increased in cover and replaced the dominant annual species after 5 yr. Pioneer dicots persisted in older seral stages with 20 — 23 species/plot. Overall, exotic species (mostly the grasses Lolium multiflorum and Cynodon dactylon) contributed much to the plant cover in these communities. Native grasses comprised 45 % of total cover at years 7 — 10 of succession, but occurred with less than 7 species/plot. Substantial variation was found in the successional pathway, which reflected the particular sequence from annual forbs to short-lived and perennial grasses in the various plots. The course of succession was apparently influenced by a 2-yr period of unusually high rainfall. Deyeuxia viridiflavescens, a native perennial grass virtually absent before the wet period, spread over the study area and dominated seral communities for 3 yr, irrespective of plot age. Climatic conditions thus affected the successional turnover of life forms by increasing the rate of colonization by perennial grasses. We further point out the constraints imposed on secondary succession by the life histories of ‘available’ species.     

Temporal variations in seed dispersal patterns of a bird-dispersed tree, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Swida controversa</Emphasis> (Cornaceae), in a temperate forest

The seed dispersal patterns of bird-dispersed trees often show substantial seasonal and annual variation due to temporal changes in frugivorous bird and bird-dispersed fruit distributions. Elucidating such variation and how it affects plant regeneration is important for understanding the evolution and seed dispersal maintenance strategies of these plants. In this study, we investigated the seed dispersal quantity and distance of a bird-dispersed plant, Swida controversa, for 2 years and detected large seasonal variations in dispersal pattern. Early in the fruiting season, short seed dispersal distance and large amounts of fruit consumption by birds (seed dispersal quantity) were observed. In contrast, late in the fruiting season, a long seed dispersal distance and small seed dispersal quantity were observed. This relationship between seed dispersal distance and quantity may help to maintain constant seed dispersal effectiveness during the long S. controversa fruiting season. Annual variation was also detected for both seed dispersal quantity and distance. More effective seed dispersal was achieved in the masting year, because both seed dispersal quantity and distance were greater than that in the non-masting year. These seed dispersal dynamics may contribute to the evolution and maintenance of S. controversa masting behavior. Thus, we identified substantial temporal variation on both seasonal and annual scales in the seed dispersal pattern of a bird-dispersed plant. The temporal variation in seed dispersal pattern revealed in this study probably plays a substantial role in the life history and population dynamics of S. controversa.     

Old-field colonization by Daphne gnidium: seedling distribution and spatial dependence at different scales

Abstract. This paper deals with the spatial distribution pattern of the bird-dispersed plant Daphne gnidium in a 10-yr abandoned field under Mediterranean conditions. Colonization of Mediterranean old-fields by bird-dispersed plants is expected to fit a theoretical model in which (1) seed dispersal follows a negative exponential curve with the distance from the seed source and (2) seedlings are better established under perches (nucleation sensu Yarranton & Morrison 1974). However, post-dispersal processes such as seed predation, seed germination and seedling establishment are also spatial-dependent and can lead to spatial autocorrelation in the seedling distribution within an old-field. Results show that both processes in the model (curve of seed dispersal and nucleation) significantly explained the spatial distribution of the seedlings, but some spatial variance remained unexplained. The semivariogram with the statistical residuals of the model detected spatial dependence at small (< 20 m) and large (> 250 m) distance intervals, indicating that some mechanisms with spatial components, apart from the curve of seed dispersal and nucleation under perches, also determined the distribution of seedlings colonizing fields. At scales below 20-m intervals, semivariance increased indicating that similarity between plots is lost when distance increases between them. This pattern may be explained because the favourable micro-environmental conditions for establishment produced under perches could be extended towards neighbour plots where perches were absent. A flat semi-variogram between 20-m and 250-m intervals shows spatial independence along this range. From 250 m on, the semivariance increased again, indicating spatial dependence at coarse-scale. It is possible that the colonization model failed at this scale because different spatial processes to those included in the model (perch presence and distance to the shrubland) could be controlling seed colonization at coarse-scale.     

塔里木河流域下游植物区系及生态学研究

塔里木河流域下游地区植物有30科80属122种。以双子叶植物类群占优势,其中多年生草本植物在塔里木河流域下游植物中占多数。显示了物种形成是年轻的进化类型。生态类型以旱生植物为主。占总种数的52％,这足长期适应比较干旱的自然环境的结果。该区系的温带成分占优势。地中海成分也占有一定地位。这些区系成分的植物都是干旱区荒漠植物的代表。区系地理反映了物种演化过程的历史气候、地质变化动态。查清塔里木河流域下游植物资源的数量和分布区的变迁,为该地区的植物资源保护提供科学依据。     

西双版纳勐宋轮歇演替区鸟类多样性及食果鸟研究

结合退耕还林、生态保护和山区经济持续发展的需要,在西双版纳勐宋轮歇休闲自然演替林地、传统保护使林地和原始自然林地等3类8种生境中,采用样方法并辅以挂网捕鸟法,研究了鸟类的多样性、食果鸟类及其与森林动态的关系。结果表明：①随着轮歇休闲时间递增和植被层次增加,鸟类多样性增加,鸟类群落逐渐复杂化;②鸟类多样性H、Hmax和J等参数变化情况在干季和雨季类似;③食果传播植物种子的鸟类沟通了各林地之间的联系,它们的活动对植被的演替和扩展至关重要。讨论分析认为,鸟类多样性与生境植被结构相互作用,协同发展;在退耕还林工作中要重视食果类及其生态功能的作用,注意保护原始森林和鸟类物种,利用和促进食果鸟类的自然生态功能。     

The role of the perch effect on the nucleation process in Mediterranean semi-arid oldfields

Oldfield succession in Mediterranean ecosystems has been studied extensively in mesic conditions. However, this phenomenon is still poorly understood in semi-arid Mediterranean areas, where reduced plant cover, the importance of facilitation processes and the role of abiotic factors make these environments distinct. We first test whether the carob tree (Ceratonia siliqua) generates nucleation patterns in semi-arid oldfields, and to what extent such patterns change with abandonment age. Then we test to what extent nucleation can be explained by the perch effect. And finally, we test whether the nucleated pattern around carob trees is a source of diversity in the oldfields studied. To answer these questions we located oldfields abandoned 25 and 50 years ago (20 in each case) in the Alacant Province (SE Spain, Iberian Peninsula) on the basis of aerial photographs and personal interviews with local landowners and managers. In each oldfield woody plant density and richness were sampled on two microsites: under the carob tree and in the open field. Analysis was performed on all woody plants and by separating the species in two functional groups: fleshy-fruited (with fleshy mesocarp) and non-fleshy-fruited species. The results suggest that woody vegetation colonising abandoned C. siliqua fields in SE Spain is not randomly distributed but follows a nucleation pattern with higher plant density under the trees. However, the nucleation pattern is only significant for fleshy-fruited species, suggesting that facilitative interactions alone cannot explain the nucleation pattern and that the perch effect plays an important role. The results also show that the nucleation pattern (total plant density and density of non-fleshy-fruited plants) did not increase with abandonment age, while the perch effect (density of fleshy-fruited plants) did increase significantly. Furthermore, the results also show that the nucleation pattern is not only a loci of high plant density but also a loci of high species richness. Thus we can conclude that the nucleation pattern found in oldfield succession is best explained by the perch effect, while facilitation has a secondary importance. This emphasises the key role that dispersal mode has on the dynamics of vegetation recovery in formerly cropped areas.     

鸟类栖木在森林植被恢复中的生态意义

鸟类传播种子对于植物种群自然更新及群落演替具有重要的生态意义,鸟类栖息的树木具有富集种子雨功能,在山体滑坡区及废弃矿区等干扰生境中人工设置鸟类栖木,可以增加鸟类传播的种子雨输入,丰富土壤种子库,尤其食果鸟类可以传播那些处于群落演替中期至后期的乔、灌木树种,能够促进受干扰地区森林植被的演替进程.5·12汶川大地震对地震灾区造成了大面积的山体滑坡和严重的植被破坏,在地震灾区森林植被的生态恢复工作中,一些地区可以采用人工设置鸟类栖木方法,充分利用山体滑坡区周围残余森林的丰富种子源及众多食果鸟类,促进灾区森林植被的自然恢复.     

Bird-made fruit orchards in northern Europe: nestedness and network properties

Frugivorous birds are involved in the distribution of fleshy-fruited plants. In a temperate forest in northern Europe, we investigated how fruit-eating birds and habitat variation affect the local distribution of these plants and what the consequences are to the species composition of the fruit-bearing plant community. We subdivided the forest into 25×25 quadrates and mapped the distribution of all fleshy-fruited plant species (18 species) expected to have their seeds dispersed by birds. Our specific aims were (i) to test if the distribution of the fleshy-fruited species in the forest was clumped, (ii) nested, and (iii) to describe the set of species as an interacting network. Our results show that bird-dispersed fleshy-fruited species in a temperate forest constitute a set of orchards with a strong spatial structure. The distributions of species were highly correlated and nested. We suggest that factors involved in dispersal and colonization are mainly responsible of a nested structure, where rare species are only found together with more widespread species and species-poor sites only contain widespread species. Besides, the community had small-world topology with high clustering and short path length between species. This makes the network robust against random perturbations.     

East-west divergence in central Brazilian Cerrado revealed by cpDNA sequences of a bird-dispersed tree species

Population genetic studies of plant species can contribute to understanding the evolutionary history of the Brazilian Cerrado, a highly threatened hotspot and the richest tropical savanna in the world. Therefore, this study aimed at investigating the diversity and genetic structure of Byrsonima coccolobifolia (Malpighiaceae), one of the most common tree species in the Brazilian Cerrado, focusing mainly on the central area of the biome. This is a bird-dispersed species, and studies targeting species with this seed dispersal syndrome are scarce. First, we performed a careful screening of cpDNA markers to identify regions suitable for intraspecific genetic studies, and then we investigated the diversity and genetic structure in ten populations of B. coccolobifolia. The cpDNA regions selected (trnS-trnG and trnH-trnK) revealed considerable divergence among populations and a striking geographical structure, separating populations in two groups, east and west. Although seed dispersal by birds is expected to reach long distances, our results strongly corroborate studies targeting trees with limited seed dispersal. This suggests that historical fragmentation of Cerrado (possibly during cold and dry periods of the Quaternary) might have limited long distance dispersal events after climate amelioration even in bird-dispersed species, especially while Cerrado was expanding but still fragmented.     

Forest Regeneration in a Chronosequence of Tropical Abandoned Pastures: Implications for Restoration Ecology

During the mid‐1900s, most of the island of Puerto Rico was deforested, but a shift in the economy from agriculture to small industry beginning in the 1950s resulted in the abandonment of agricultural lands and recovery of secondary forest. This unique history provides an excellent opportunity to study secondary forest succession and suggest strategies for tropical forest restoration. To determine the pattern of secondary succession, we describe the woody vegetation in 71 abandoned pastures and forest sites in four regions of Puerto Rico. The density, basal area, aboveground biomass, and species richness of the secondary forest sites were similar to those of the old growth forest sites (>80 yr) after approximately 40 years. The dominant species that colonized recently abandoned pastures occurred over a broad elevational range and are widespread in the neotropics. The species richness of Puerto Rican secondary forests recovered rapidly, but the species composition was quite different in comparison with old growth forest sites, suggesting that enrichment planting will be necessary to restore the original composition. Exotic species were some of the most abundant species in the secondary forest, but their long‐term impact depended on life history characteristics of each species. These data demonstrate that one restoration strategy for tropical forest in abandoned pastures is simply to protect the areas from fire, and allow natural regeneration to produce secondary forest. This strategy will be most effective if remnant forest (i.e., seed sources) still exist in the landscape and soils have not been highly degraded. Patterns of forest recovery also suggest strategies for accelerating natural recovery by planting a suite of generalist species that are common in recently abandoned pastures in Puerto Rico and throughout much of the neotropics.