Serological survey of T-lymphocyte differentiation antigens in wild mice

Allelic distributions of Thy-1, Ly-l, and Ly-2 antigens in wild mice are characteristic of each Mus musculus subspecies. Eastern mice (M.m.molossinus, M.mmusculus, M.m.castaneus, M.m.bactrianus) express the Thy-1.1 antigen, whereas Western mice (M.m. domesticus, M.m.brevirostris) express the Thy-1.2. All mice from wild populations examined in this survey express the Ly-1.2. The Ly-2.1 is distributed in Eastern mice and some Western mice, and the Ly-2.2 is found in the remaining Western mice. Allelic distributions of these antigens were also examined in two other species, Mus spretus and Mus spicilegus. Allelic constitutions of Thy-1 and Ly-1 in these species are similar to those of Eastern mice. Some M.spicilegus, however, express the Ly-1.1 antigen. This antigenic type is not found in M.musculus. Some Eastern mice related to M.m.castaneus react weakly to Ly-1.2-specific and Ly-2.1-specific monoclonal antibodies in both the complement-mediated cytotoxicity test and the absorption test. These results suggest that M.m.castaneus has unique alleles in the Ly-1 and Ly-2 loci.     

Detection of recombinant haplotypes in wild mice (Mus musculus) provides new insights into the origin of Japanese mice

Japanese house mice (Mus musculus molossinus) are thought to be a hybrid lineage derived from two prehistoric immigrants, the subspecies M. m. musculus of northern Eurasia and M. m. castaneus of South Asia. Mice of the western European subspecies M. m. domesticus have been detected in Japanese ports and airports only. We examined haplotype structuring of a 200 kb stretch on chromosome 8 for 59 mice from throughout Eurasia, determining short segments (≈ 370–600 bp) of eight nuclear genes (Fanca, Spire2, Tcf25, Mc1r, Tubb3, Def8, Afg3l1 and Dbndd1) which are intermittently arranged in this order. Where possible we identified the subspecies origin for individual gene alleles and then designated haplotypes for concatenated alleles. We recovered 11 haplotypes among 19 Japanese mice examined, identified either as ‘intact’ haplotypes derived from the subspecies musculus (57.9%), domesticus (7.9%), and castaneus (2.6%), or as ‘recombinant’ haplotypes (31.6%). We also detected recombinant haplotypes unique to Sakhalin. The complex nature of the recombinant haplotypes suggests ancient introduction of all three subspecies components into the peripheral part of Eurasia or complicated genomic admixture before the movement from source areas. ‘Intact’domesticus and castaneus haplotypes in other Japanese wild mice imply ongoing stowaway introductions. The method has general utility for assessing the history of genetic admixture and for disclosing ongoing genetic contamination.     

Introgression of nuclear and mitochondrial DNA markers of Mus musculus musculus to aboriginal populations of wild mice from Central Asia (M. m. wagneri) and South Siberia (M. m. gansuensis)

Variability of the nucleotide sequences of the second intron of the b1-chain of hemoglobin (Hbb-b1) and complete control region of mitochondrial DNA (D-loop) was studied in aboriginal and synanthropic populations of M. m. wagneri from Central Asia and M. m. gansuensis from South Siberia. A difference in the frequency of the Hbb^w1 hemoglobin variant for natural and urban populations of mice was shown. All mice from natural habitats of studied areas have musculus type of mtDNA. Apparently, the substitution of taxon-specific mitochondrial haplotypes of wagneri, and gansuensis might occur due to the absorbing hybridization with nominate subspecies musculus, which is consistent with the results on nuclear DNA (Hbb-b1 gene) obtained in this work. Two differentiated haplogroups among aboriginal subspecies wagneri (d = 0.01), one of which included house mice from Turkmenistan, were discovered for the first time. This may indicate mtDNA introgression from synanthropic forms of Turkmenistan into natural populations of Kazakhstan mice. The type of mtDNA typical for the castaneus subspecies was detected in two individuals from the natural habitat of Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan; it had not been encountered in Central Asia before. It has been suggested that the gene flow of nuclear and mitochondrial genomes in microevolution processes in M. musculus is directed from the synanthropic forms towards wild populations.     

Location of a contact zone between Mus musculus domesticus and M. m. domesticus with M. m. castaneus mtDNA in southern New Zealand

The house mouse, Mus musculus, was first introduced into New Zealand in significant numbers in the early to mid nineteenth century, with genomic components from different sources of the three subspecies M. m. domesticus, M. m. musculus and M. m. castaneus. M. m. domesticus is now widely distributed in New Zealand, with genomic and morphological evidence of M. m. musculus in a few scattered locations. M. m. domesticus/M. m. castaneus hybrids are dominant in the southern third of the South Island. We anticipated that there should be a definable southern contact zone between pure M. m. domesticus and M. m. domesticus/M. m. castaneus hybrids. We tested this hypothesis by screening 170 DNA samples from mice collected in the southern South Island, using a PCR technique which rapidly distinguishes the mitochondrial genomes of the three subspecies.All mice sampled from in or north of Lincoln (43.63° S) had only M. m. domesticus mtDNA, whereas all those from or further south than Hook (44.68° S) had M. m. castaneus mtDNA. Between the two sites, mice carrying mtDNA of both subspecies were found, sometimes in the same building. On present data, this contact zone extends approximately 50 km north to south and some 30 km inland. Classical tests with three nuclear DNA markers confirmed earlier work showing that the nuclear genomes of all mice appeared to be predominantly domesticus-like.We conclude that if purebred M. m. castaneus mice did originally reach New Zealand, extensive backcrossing with M. m. domesticus has made the castaneus nuclear genome virtually undetectable with the tests that we employ.     

Phylogeography of Chinese house mice (Mus musculus musculus/castaneus): distribution,routes of colonization and geographic regions of hybridization

House mice (Mus musculus) are human commensals and have served as a primary model in biomedical, ecological and evolutionary research. Although there is detailed knowledge of the biogeography of house mice in Europe, little is known of the history of house mice in China, despite the fact that China encompasses an enormous portion of their range. In the present study, 535 house mice caught from 29 localities in China were studied by sequencing the mitochondrial D‐loop and genotyping 10 nuclear microsatellite markers distributed on 10 chromosomes. Phylogenetic analyses revealed two evolutionary lineages corresponding to Mus musculus castaneus and Mus musculus musculus in the south and north, respectively, with the Yangtze River approximately representing the boundary. More detailed analyses combining published sequence data from mice sampled in neighbouring countries revealed the migration routes of the two subspecies into China: M. m. castaneus appeared to have migrated through a southern route (Yunnan and Guangxi), whereas M. m. musculus entered China from Kazakhstan through the north‐west border (Xinjiang). Bayesian analysis of mitochondrial sequences indicated rapid population expansions in both subspecies, approximately 4650–9300 and 7150–14 300 years ago for M. m. castaneus and M. m. musculus, respectively. Interestingly, the migration routes of Chinese house mice coincide with the colonization routes of modern humans into China, and the expansion times of house mice are consistent with the development of agriculture in southern and northern China, respectively. Finally, our study confirmed the existence of a hybrid zone between M. m. castaneus and M. m. musculus in China. Further study of this hybrid zone will provide a useful counterpart to the well‐studied hybrid zone between M. m. musculus and Mus musculus domesticus in central Europe.     

Polymorphism and conservation of the genes encoding Qa1 molecules

To evaluate the polymorphism and conservation of the major histocompatibility complex class Ib molecule Qa1 in wild mouse populations, we determined the nucleotide sequence of exons 1–3 of Qa1 of eight mouse haplotypes derived from wild mice, including Mus musculus domesticus, M. m. castaneus, M. m. bactrianus, and M. spretus, as well as two t haplotypes. Our data identify eight new alleles of Qa1. Taken together with previously published data on Qa1 among the common laboratory inbred strains, and in agreement with cytotoxic T-lymphocyte, serological, and biochemical data, these results further confirm the existence of two families of Qa1 molecules, Qa1^a-like and Qa1^b-like, and illuminate the extreme conservation of the peptide-binding region of these molecules, even across species.The wild mouse Qa1 nucleotide sequences are available from GenBank at accession numbers AF100695–703     

Genetic variability and the origin of house mouse from the territory of russia and neighboring countries

Genetic differentiation and gene geographic variation of house mouse from the territory of Russia and neighboring countries was examined based on the allozyme analysis of samples from natural, semisynanthropic, and obligate synanthropic populations. The results of analysis of genetic differentiation, performed using 22 interpreted loci, as well as the data on gene geographic variation of four allozyme markers (Idh-1, Sod-1, Aat-1, and hemoglobin) validated the hypothesis on rapid mice expansion from the south of Eastern Europe to the Pacific coast of Asia. It was demonstrated that moving eastwards led to the formation currently expanding zones of hybridization between the “northern” M. musculus group and the “Central Asian” M. wagneri group in Siberia, and with the M. m. castaneus group in the south of the Russian Far East. The allozyme data were compared with the data of molecular genetic and karyological analyses performed using the same experimental material. The phenomenon of hybrid zones of the house mouse from Eurasia is discussed.     

Genetic and Taxonomic Diversity of the House Mouse Mus musculus from the Asian Part of the Former Soviet Union

Genetic diversity of the house mouse Mus musculus from 12 local populations (n = 65) of the central and eastern parts of the former Soviet Union was examined using RAPD–PCR. About 400 loci were identified, encompassing approximately 500 kb of the mouse genome. Genetic diversity was assessed using NTSYS, POPGENE, TFPGA, and TREECON software programs. In general, the house mouse sample from the regions examined was characterized by moderate genetic variation: polymorphism P = 95.6%, P ₉₉ = 60.7%, P ₉₅ = 24.2%; heterozygosity H = 0.089; the mean observed number of alleles n _a = 1.97; effective number of alleles n _e = 1.13; intrapopulation differentiation _S = 0.387; gene diversity h = 0.09. Individual local populations displayed different levels of genetic isolation: the genetic subdivision index G _st varied from 0.086 to 0.324 at gene flow Nm varying from 5.3 to 1.05, while the interpopulation genetic distance D _N ranged from 0.059 to 0.186. Most of the genetic diversity of the total sample resided within the local populations: H _S = 0.06, total gene diversity H _T = 0.09. The exact test for differentiation, however, did not confirm the affiliation of all the mice examined to one population: ² = 1446, d.f. = 724, P = 0.000. Molecular markers specific to four subspecies (musculus, castaneus, gansuensis, and wagneri) were identified. Moreover, in some cases the populations and individual animals exhibited traits of different subspecies, suggesting their introgressive hybridization. It was demonstrated that the house mouse fauna on the territories investigated was characterized by the prevalence of musculus-specific markers, while gansuensis-specific markers ranked second. The castaneus-specific markers were highly frequent in the Far East, but almost absent in Central Asia, where wagneri-specific markers were detected. It was suggested that house mice from Turkmenistan could belong to one of the southern subspecies, which had not deeply penetrated into the Asian fauna of the former Soviet Union. In phenogenetic (UPGMA) and phylogenetic (NJ) reconstructions this form with the high bootstrap support was placed at the tree base, while the isolation of other clusters was not statistically significant. It is thus likely that the house mice from Turkmenistan are closest to the ancestral form of the genus Mus on the territory of the former Soviet Union.     

Electrophoretic Variation for X Chromosome-Linked Hypoxanthine Phosphoribosyl Transferase (Hprt) in Wild-Derived Mice

An electrophoretic variation for hypoxanthine phosphoribosyltransferase, HPRT, has been identified in samples of Mus spretus, a field mouse from southern Europe and in M. m. castaneus, a house mouse from southeast Asia. These mice will interbreed with laboratory mice to produce viable, fertile F₁ progeny. The variation for HPRT segregates as an X chromosome gene in F₁ and backcross progeny. Linkage analysis involving the markers Pgk-1 and Ags indicated a gene order of centromere— Hprt—Pgk-1—Ags in crosses involving both stocks of wild mice.     

The musculus-type Y Chromosome of the laboratory mouse is of Asian origin

Mus musculus domesticus, M.m. bactrianus, M. m. musculus, M.m. castaneus, and M.m. molossinus wild mice were investigated for polymorphisms of the Y Chromosome (Chr) genes Zinc finger-Y (Zfy) and Sex-determining region-Y (Sry). Zfy divided the Y Chrs of these mice into domesticus- (domesticus) and musculus-types (musculus, castaneus, molossinus). M.m. bactrianus specimens had both Y Chrs, possibly owing to the introgression of a musculus-type Y into this population. Sry identified a subpopulation of musculus-type Y chromosomes. This subpopulation, designated the molossinus-type, was found in M.m. molossinus, a M. musculus subspecies specimen from northern China (Changchun), and laboratory mice. The cumulative data suggest that M.m. musculus of northern China and Korea are subpopulation distinct from M.m. musculus of Europe and central China and that this subpopulation invaded Japan, giving rise to M.m. molossinus. Furthermore, the data suggest that the musculus-type Y of the laboratory mouse originated from this subpopulation, corroborating early historical record reporting that Chinese and Japanese mice that were imported into Europe for the pet trade contributed to the genome of the laboratory mouse.     

Variation in mandible shape and body size of house mice Mus musculus in five separate New Zealand forest habitats

This study investigates variation in house mouse Mus musculus body size and mandible shape across New Zealand, using geometric morphometrics and biomechanical advantage analyses. The Mus phylogroups currently known in New Zealand include Mus musculus domesticus, M. m. musculus and M. m. castaneus. We examined samples of house mice inhabiting five different podocarp and beech forest environments across the North and South Islands (Pureora Forest, Zealandia Wildlife Sanctuary, Craigieburn Forest Park, Eglinton Valley and Hollyford Valley). Significant variation in mandible shape and body size was found between all five forest populations. South Island mice had larger bodies and greater mechanical advantage in the temporalis muscle compared with their North Island counterparts. Zealandia Sanctuary mouse mandibles were broader and shorter than South Island mouse mandibles, and had greater masseter muscle advantage. Centroid size and body weight, but not head-body length, varied significantly with two distinct genetic haplotypes. Finally, annual rainfall was the most significant covariate with mandible shape. Higher rainfall locations were generally associated with soft-food related mandible shapes, while lower rainfall correlated with hard-food mandible shapes. This preliminary investigation provides the framework for further research into mandible shape and body size variation in New Zealand house mice.     

Origin and radiation of the house mouse: mitochondrial DNA phylogeny

On the basis of patterns of allele frequency variation in nuclear genes (Din et al., in press) it has been proposed that the house mouse M. musculus originated in the northern Indian subcontinent, from where it radiated in several directions to form the well-described peripheral subspecies (M. m. domesticus, M. m. musculus and M. m. castaneus). Here we use a mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) phylogeny to test this hypothesis and to analyse the historical and demographic events that have accompanied this differentiation. This marker also provides a powerful means to check for genetic continuity between the central and peripheral populations. We studied restriction site polymorphism of samples from India and the Middle East as well as samples from the rest of Eurasia and northern Africa. M. m. domesticus and M. m. musculus are both monophyletic for mtDNA and belong to the subspecies-specific mtDNA lineages that have been described previously. Average nucleotide diversity is low in M. m. musculus (0.2–5%). It is not only higher in M. m. domesticus (0.7–0.9%) but the distribution of pairwise divergence is wider, and the rate of evolution in this branch appears to be higher than in M. m. musculus. The nucleotide diversity found in M. m. castaneus (0.4%) is due to the existence of two rather divergent linages with little intralineage variation. These two lineages are part of a diversified bush of the phylogenetic tree that also comprises several previously undescribed branches and includes all samples from the northern Indian subcontinent and Iran. The degree of diversity found in each of the samples from this region is high (1.2–2.4%) although they come from small geographic areas. This agrees well with the idea that the origin of the radiation was in the northern Indian subcontinent. However, as neither haplotypes on the M. m. domesticus nor on the M. m. musculus branches were found in this region, there appear to be important phylogeographic discontinuities between this central region and these peripherial subspecies. On the basis of the present result and the nuclear data (Din et al., in press), we propose that M. musculus originated in the north of the indian subcontinent. Our calibration of the evolutionary rate of mtDNA in mice suggests that the mouse settlement in this region could be as old as 900 000 years. Possibly from there, a first radiation could have reach the Middle East and the Caspian Sea, where the M. m. domesticus and M. m. musculus lineages, respectively, would have started to differentiate a few hundred thousand years ago, and from where they could have colonised the peripheral part of their ranges only recently.M. m. castaneus appears from its mtDNA to be recent offshoot of the northern Indian population. This multiple and gradual radiation ultimately led to recent peripheral secondary contacts, such as the well-known European hybrid zone.     

Evidence for Pervasive Adaptive Protein Evolution in Wild Mice

The relative contributions of neutral and adaptive substitutions to molecular evolution has been one of the most controversial issues in evolutionary biology for more than 40 years. The analysis of within-species nucleotide polymorphism and between-species divergence data supports a widespread role for adaptive protein evolution in certain taxa. For example, estimates of the proportion of adaptive amino acid substitutions (α) are 50% or more in enteric bacteria and Drosophila. In contrast, recent estimates of α for hominids have been at most 13%. Here, we estimate α for protein sequences of murid rodents based on nucleotide polymorphism data from multiple genes in a population of the house mouse subspecies Mus musculus castaneus, which inhabits the ancestral range of the Mus species complex and nucleotide divergence between M. m. castaneus and M. famulus or the rat. We estimate that 57% of amino acid substitutions in murids have been driven by positive selection. Hominids, therefore, are exceptional in having low apparent levels of adaptive protein evolution. The high frequency of adaptive amino acid substitutions in wild mice is consistent with their large effective population size, leading to effective natural selection at the molecular level. Effective natural selection also manifests itself as a paucity of effectively neutral nonsynonymous mutations in M. m. castaneus compared to humans.     

Fine-Scale Phylogenetic Discordance across the House Mouse Genome

Population genetic theory predicts discordance in the true phylogeny of different genomic regions when studying recently diverged species. Despite this expectation, genome-wide discordance in young species groups has rarely been statistically quantified. The house mouse subspecies group provides a model system for examining phylogenetic discordance. House mouse subspecies are recently derived, suggesting that even if there has been a simple tree-like population history, gene trees could disagree with the population history due to incomplete lineage sorting. Subspecies of house mice also hybridize in nature, raising the possibility that recent introgression might lead to additional phylogenetic discordance. Single-locus approaches have revealed support for conflicting topologies, resulting in a subspecies tree often summarized as a polytomy. To analyze phylogenetic histories on a genomic scale, we applied a recently developed method, Bayesian concordance analysis, to dense SNP data from three closely related subspecies of house mice: Mus musculus musculus, M. m. castaneus, and M. m. domesticus. We documented substantial variation in phylogenetic history across the genome. Although each of the three possible topologies was strongly supported by a large number of loci, there was statistical evidence for a primary phylogenetic history in which M. m. musculus and M. m. castaneus are sister subspecies. These results underscore the importance of measuring phylogenetic discordance in other recently diverged groups using methods such as Bayesian concordance analysis, which are designed for this purpose.     

What can the geographic distribution of mtDNA haplotypes tell us about the invasion of New Zealand by house mice <Emphasis Type="Italic">Mus musculus</Emphasis>?

We mapped the distribution and diversity of mitochondrial D-loop haplotypes among 502 New Zealand house mice (Mus musculus). By widespread sampling from 74 sites, we identified 14 new haplotypes. We used Bayesian phylogenetic reconstructions to estimate the genetic relationships between the New Zealand representatives of Mus musculus domesticus (all six known clades) and M. m. castaneus (clade HG2), and mice from other locales. We defined four distinct geographic regions of New Zealand with differing haplotype diversity indices. Our Results suggest (a) two independent pre-1840 invasions by mice of different origin (domesticus clade E and castaneus clade HG2) at opposite ends of the country; (b) multiple later invasions by domesticus clades E and F accompanying the post-1840 development of New Zealand port facilities in the central regions, plus limited local incursions by domesticus clades A, B, C and D1; (c) a separate invasion of Chatham I. by castaneus clade HG2; (d) previously undescribed New Zealand haplotypes, potentially the products of localised indigenous mutation, and (e) hybridisation between different lineages.     

Origin of the House Mice (Superspecies Complex Mus musculus sensu lato) from the Transcaucasia Region: A New Look at Dispersal Routes and Evolution

We analyzed our results and literature evidence on variability of nuclear protein genes in 39 populations of eight commensal and wild species of house mice (superspecies complexesMus musculus and M. spicilegus) from Transcaucasia, Eastern and Western Europe, Near and Middle East, Central, South, and East Asia, and Cuba. These data were for the first time ever combined into a single database by unification of nomenclature of 21 loci examined by different authors in 39 populations. Analysis of geographical allele distribution have shown that populations of domestic Transcaucasian mice are close to Indo-Pakistani populations of form oriental of the species M. castaneus, which preserved a high level of ancestral polymorphism. We concluded that a very heterogeneous, rich gene pool of house mice from Transcaucasia could not develop only by secondary contacts of differentiated M. musculus s. str. and M. domesticus forms, since it is similar to the ancestral gene pool of the superspecies complexes M. musculus and M. spicilegus. In this context, unique characteristics of some Central Asian populations were examined; these populations may have served as a transit station in the dispersal of commensal house mice forms. We suggest that the Transcaucasian populations are genealogically closely related to an early Near East form of M. musculus, which, as M. domesticus and M. castaneus, split from the common ancestor and preserved nondifferentiated pool of ancestral alleles of protein genes. This hypothesis admits the involvement of differentiated species M. musculus s. str. and M. domesticus in the ultimate formation of the gene pool of Transcaucasian house mice. Apparently, these populations resulted from alternation and (or) overlapping of different evolutionary processes. A scenario suggesting that hybrid events having occurred in Transcaucasia at different times, were superposed on the gene pool of the ancient autochtonous population of house mice from this region seems most plausible. Analysis of allozyme variability in the modern Transcaucasian Mus populations could not always distinguish between ancestral polymorphism and hybridization consequences.     

Evaluation of the Fertility of Ecologically Different Forms of House Mice and Hybrids of the Superspecies Complex <Emphasis Type="Italic">Mus musculus</Emphasis> sensu lato (Rodentia: Muridae)

In house mice from the superspecies complex Mus musculus s. l., the relative weight of their testicles is higher and the sperm quality is better for wildliving species than for synantropic species. It is shown that this pattern is observed at an intraspecific level as well, since the testicle weight index and sperm concentration were significantly higher in the hemi-synantropic subspecies Mus musculus wagneri and M. m. gansuensis as compared to the synantropic M. m. musculus in a number of comparisons. The heritability of these indices should be considered when interpreting the results of experimental crosses in house mice.     

Phylogenetic relationships of intraspecific forms of the house mouse Mus musculus: Analysis of variability of the control region (D-loop) of mitochondrial DNA

Analysis of the control region of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) or D-loop of 96 house mice (Mus musculus) from Russia, Moldova, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, and Turkmenistan has been used to reconstruct the phylogenetic relationships and phylogeographic patterns of intraspecific forms. New data on the phylogenetic structure of the house mouse are presented. Three phylogroups can be reliably distinguished in the eastern part of the M. musculus species range, the first one mainly comprising the haplotypes of mice from Transcaucasia (Armenia); the second one, the haplotypes of mice from Kazakhstan; and the third one, the haplotypes of mice from Siberia and some other regions. The morphological subspecies M. m. wagneri and M. m. gansuensis have proved to be genetically heterogeneous and did not form discrete phylogroups in the phylogenetic tree.     

Context Dependent Territory Defense: The Importance of Habitat Structure in Anolis sagrei

Territoriality is a potentially costly endeavor, and several mechanisms for mitigating the costs of territoriality have been investigated in the wild. For example, territory owners can reduce the costs of defending territory boundaries by prioritizing defense of the most valuable areas within territories, investing less energy in low quality areas. We staged pairwise encounters between adult male lizards on natural territories in the wild, to test whether male brown anoles, Anolis sagrei, would differentially defend certain regions of their territories over others. Based on our observations that male A. sagrei spend most of their time on elevated perches on tree trunks or branches compared with sites on the ground, we predicted that territory residents would respond more aggressively to territory invasions that took place on elevated perches than to invasions on the ground. We measured significant differences in the behavior of residents following invasion on the ground vs. on the elevated perches, and results partially supported our hypothesis. Males performed more displays and approached intruders more often when territory invasion took place on the ground, but were quicker to attack intruders that entered territories on elevated perches. Our hypothesis was only partially supported, potentially indicating that elevated perches are preferred as outposts to monitor valuable sites on the ground. Our study provides evidence that territory defense varies not just among individuals, but also within individuals at different locations in a territory.     

Polymerase chain reaction multiplexing of microsatellites and single nucleotide polymorphism markers for quantitative trait loci mapping of wild house mice

We tested 96 microsatellites and 10 single nucleotide polymorphisms for their allelic distribution in two subspecies of the house mouse, Mus musculus musculus and M. m. domesticus. Sixty‐two microsatellites discriminated strain‐specific differences among nine wild‐derived ‘musculus’ and ‘domesticus’ and three ‘classical’ laboratory strains. For efficient genotyping, we optimized multiplex conditions using five microsatellites per polymerase chain reaction. All 10 single nucleotide polymorphisms were also optimized for simultaneous analysis in one reaction using SNaPshot multiplex. The uniform distribution of markers on autosomes and on the X chromosome makes these panels potentially useful tools for quantitative trait loci mapping of wild house mice.