Measurements of LET distribution and dose equivalent onboard the Space Shuttle IML-2 (STS-65) and S/MM#4 (STS-79).

Space radiation dosimetry measurements have been made onboard the Space Shuttle STS-65 in the Second International Microgravity Laboratory (IML-2: 28.5 degrees x 300 km: 14.68 days) and the STS-79 in the 4th Shuttle MIR mission (S/MM#4: 51.6 degrees x 300-400km: 10.2 days). In these measurements, three kinds of detectors were used; one is a newly developed active detector telescope called "Real-time Radiation Monitoring Device (RRMD-I for IML-2 and RRMD-II with improved triggering system for S/MM#4)" utilizing silicon semi-conductor detectors and the other detectors are conventional passive detectors of thermoluminescence dosimeters (TLDs) and CR-39 plastic track detectors. The main contribution to dose equivalent for particles with LET > 5.0 keV/micrometer (IML-2) and LET > 3.5 keV/micrometer (S/MM#4) is seen to be due to galactic cosmic rays (GCRs) and the contribution of the South Atlantic Anomaly (SAA) is less than 5% (IML-2: 28.5 degrees x 300 km) and 15% (S/MM#4: 51.6 degrees x 400 km) in the above RRMD LET detection conditions. For the whole LET range (> 0.2 kev/micrometer) obtained by TLDs and CR-39 in these two typical orbits (a small inclination x low altitude and a large inclination x high altitude), absorbed dose rates range from 94 to 114 microGy/day, dose equivalent rates from 186 to 207 microSv/day and average quality factors from 1.82 to 2.00 depending on the locations and directions of detectors inside the Spacelab at the highly protected IML-2 orbit (28.5 degrees x 300 km), and also, absorbed dose rates range from 290 to 367 microGy/day, dose equivalent rates from 582 to 651 microSv/day and average quality factors from 1.78 to 2.01 depending on the dosimeter packages around the RRMD-II "Detector Unit" at the S/MM#4 orbit (5l.6 degrees x 400km). In general, it is seen that absorbed doses depend on the orbit altitude (SAA trapped particles contribution dominant) and dose equivalents on the orbit inclination (GCR contribution dominant). The LET distributions obtained by two different types of active and passive detectors, RRMDs and CR-39, are in good agreement for LET of 15 - 200 kev/micrometer and difference of these distributions in the regions of LET < 15 kev/micrometer and LET > 200 kev/micrometer can be explained by considering characteristics of CR-39 etched track formation especially for the low LET tracks and chemical etching conditions.     

A comparison of depth dependence of dose and linear energy transfer spectra in aluminum and polyethylene

A set of four tissue-equivalent proportional counters (TEPCs), with their detector heads at the centers of 0 (bare), 3, 7 and 9-inch-diameter aluminum spheres, were flown on Shuttle flight STS-89. Five such detectors at the centers of polyethylene spheres were flown 1 year earlier on STS-81. The results of dose-depth dependence for the two materials convincingly show the merits of using material rich in hydrogen to decrease the radiation exposure to the crew. A comparison of the calculated galactic cosmic radiation (GCR) absorbed dose and dose-equivalent rates using the radiation transport code HZETRN with nuclear fragmentation model NUCFRG2 and the measured GCR absorbed dose rates and dose-equivalent rates shows that they agree within root mean square (rms) error of 12.5 and 8.2%, respectively. However, there are significant depth-dependent differences in the linear energy transfer (LET) spectra. A comparison for trapped protons using the proton transport code BRYNTRN and the AP-8 MIN trapped-proton model shows a systematic bias, with the model underpredicting dose and dose-equivalent rates. These results show the need for improvements in the radiation transport and/or fragmentation models.     

The fragmentation of 670A MeV neon-20 as a function of depth in water. I. Experiment

We present the final analysis of an experiment to study the interaction of a beam of 670A MeV neon ions incident on a water column set to different thicknesses. The atomic number Z (and, in some cases, the isotopic mass A) of primary beam particles and of the products of nuclear interactions emerging from the water column close to the central axis of the beam was obtained for nuclei between Be (Z = 4) and Ne (Z = 10) using a time-of-flight telescope to measure the velocity and a set of silicon detectors to measure the energy loss of each particle. The fluence of particles of a given charge was obtained and normalized to the incident beam intensity. Corrections were made for accidental coincidences between multiple particles triggering the TOF telescope and for interactions in the detector. The background due to beam particles interacting in beam line elements upstream of the detector was calculated. Sources of experimental artifacts and background in particle identification experiments designed to characterize heavy ion beams for radiobiological research are summarized, and some of the difficulties inherent in this work are discussed. Complete tables of absolutely normalized fluence spectra as a function of LET are included for reference purposes.     

Heavy-ion anisotropy measured by ALTEA in the International Space Station

The uneven shielding of the International Space Station from the vessel hull, racks and experiments produces a modulation of the internal radiation environment. A detailed knowledge of this environment, and therefore of the Station's shielding effectiveness, is mandatory for an accurate assessment of radiation risk. We present here the first 3D measurements of the Station's radiation environment, discriminating particle trajectories and LET, made possible using the detection capability of the ALTEA-space detector. We provide evidence for a strong (factor ≈ 3) anisotropy in the inner integral LET for high-LET particles (LET > 50?keV/μm) showing a minimum along the longitudinal station axis (most shielded) and a maximum normal to it. Integrating over all measured LETs, the anisotropy is strongly reduced, showing that unstopped light ions plus the fragments produced by heavier ions approximately maintain flux/LET isotropy. This suggests that, while changing the quality of radiation, the extra shielding along the station main axis is not producing a benefit in terms of total LET. These features should be taken into account (1) when measuring radiation with detectors that cannot distinguish the direction of the impinging radiation or that are unidirectional, (2) when planning radiation biology experiments on the ISS, and (3) when simulating the space radiation environment for experiments on the ground. A novel analysis technique that fully exploits the ability to retrieve the angular distribution of the radiation is also presented as well as the angular particle flux and LET characteristic of three geomagnetic zones measured during 2009 by the ALTEA-space detector. This technique is applied to the ALTEA-space detector, but a wider applicability to other detectors is suggested.     

LET spectra of cosmic-ray nuclei for near earth orbits

Measurements of cosmic-ray LET spectra were part of the radiobiological space research programs during the Spacelab 1 (SL-1) and the D1 missions. We analyzed CR-39 plastic nuclear track detectors of the Advanced Biostack experiment of SL-1 and of the Dosimetric Mapping and Carausius morosus experiments in the BIORACK on D1. The particle tracks in the CR-39 were detected and measured by an automatic scanning and measuring system. An in-flight calibration was derived from track measurements of minimum ionizing oxygen and iron nuclei and of stopping nuclei as a function of the residual range. LET spectra measured at different locations in the space shuttle are presented and discussed for both missions. A model describing the effects of the geomagnetic field of the earth on charged cosmic-ray particles and the shielding by matter is used to calculate LET spectra for the two missions and for typical space station orbits at low inclinations. A comparison of measured LET spectra and LET spectra calculated for different flight parameters shows that besides geomagnetic shielding the shielding by matter is most important in comparison to solar modulation and to variation of particle flux with flight altitude. Model calculations must be improved and must consider more detailed sectored shielding by matter and the influence of trapped radiation. The last item is of importance in the case of low-inclination orbits.     

Response of primary human fibroblasts exposed to solar particle event protons

Solar particle events (SPEs) present a major radiation-related risk for manned exploratory missions in deep space. Within a short period the astronauts may absorb doses that engender acute effects, in addition to the risk of late effects, such as the induction of cancer. Using primary human cells, we studied clonogenic survival and the induction of neoplastic transformation after exposure to a worst case scenario SPE. We simulated such an SPE with monoenergetic protons (50, 100, 1000 MeV) delivered at a dose rate of 1.65 cGy min?1 in a dose range from 0 to 3 Gy. For comparison, we exposed the cells to a high dose rate of 33.3 cGy min?1. X rays (100 kVp, 8 mA, 1.7 mm Al filter) were used as a reference radiation. Overall, we observed a significant sparing effect of the SPE dose rate on cell survival. High-dose-rate protons were also more efficient in induction of transformation in the dose range below 30 cGy. However, as dose accumulated at high dose rate, the transformation levels declined, while at the SPE dose rate, the number of transformants continued to increase up to about 1 Gy. These findings suggest that considering dose-rate effects may be important in evaluating the biological effects of exposure to space radiation. Our analyses of the data based on particle fluence showed that lethality and transforming potential per particle clearly increased with increasing linear energy transfer (LET) and thus with the decreasing energy of protons. Further, we found that the biological response was determined not only by LET but also type of radiation, e.g. particles and photons. This suggests that using γ or X rays may not be ideal for assessing risk associated with SPE exposures.     

Characterization of passive dosimeters in proton pencil beam scanning – A EURADOS intercomparison for mailed dosimetry audits in proton therapy centres

The lack of mailed dosimetry audits of proton therapy centres in Europe has encouraged researchers of EURADOS Working Group 9 (WG9) to compare response of several existing passive detector systems in therapeutic pencil beam scanning.Alanine Electron Paramagnetic Resonance dosimetry systems from 3 different institutes (ISS, Italy; UH, Belgium and IFJ PAN, Poland), ^natLiF:Mg, Ti (MTS-N) and ^natLiF:Mg, Cu, P (MCP-N) thermoluminescent dosimeters (TLDs), GD-352M radiophotoluminescent glass dosimeters (RPLGDs) and Al₂O₃:C optically stimulated dosimeters (OSLDs) were evaluate. Dosimeter repeatability, batch reproducibility and response in therapeutic Pencil Beam Scanning were verified for implementation as mail auditing system.Alanine detectors demonstrated the lowest linear energy transfer (LET) dependence with an agreement between measured and treatment planning system (TPS) dose below 1%. The OSLDs measured on average a 6.3% lower dose compared to TPS calculation, with no significant difference between varying modulations and ranges. Both GD-352M and MCP-N measured a lower dose than the TPS and luminescent response was dependent on the LET of the therapeutic proton beam. Thermoluminescent response of MTS-N was also found to be dependent on the LET and a higher dose than TPS was measured with the most pronounced increase of 11%.As alanine detectors are characterized by the lowest energy dependence for different parameters of therapeutic pencil beam scanning they are suitable candidates for mail auditing in proton therapy. The response of luminescence detector systems have shown promises even though more careful calibration and corrections are needed for its implementation as part of a mailed dosimetry audit system.     

COTS Silicon diodes as radiation detectors in proton and heavy charged particle radiotherapy 1

Modern radiotherapy facilities for cancer treatment such as the Heavy Ion Therapy Center (HIT) in Heidelberg, Germany, allow for sub-millimeter precision in dose deposition. For measurement of such dose distributions and characterization of the particle beams, detectors with high spatial resolution are necessary. Here, a detector based on the commercially available COTS photodiode (BPW-34) is presented. When applied in hadronic beams of protons and carbon ions, the detector reproduces dose distribution well, but its response decreases rapidly by radiation damage. However, for MeV photon beams, the detector exhibits a similar behavior as found in diode detectors usually applied in radiotherapy.     

Application of real-time radiation dosimetry using a new silicon LET sensor

A new type of real-time radiation monitoring device, RRMD-III, consisting of three double-sided silicon strip detectors (DSSDs), has been developed and tested on-board the Space Shuttle mission STS-84. The test succeeded in measuring the linear energy transfer (LET) distribution over the range of 0.2 keV/micrometer to 600 keV/micrometer for 178 h. The Shuttle cruised at an altitude of 300 to 400 km and an inclination angle of 51.6 degrees for 221.3 h, which is equivalent to the International Space Station orbit. The LET distribution obtained for particles was investigated by separating it into galactic cosmic ray (GCR) particles and trapped particles in the South Atlantic Anomaly (SAA) region. The result shows that the contribution in dose-equivalent due to GCR particles is almost equal to that from trapped particles. The total absorbed dose rate during the mission was 0.611 mGy/day; the effective quality factor, 1.64; and the dose equivalent rate, 0.998 mSv/day. The average absorbed dose rates are 0.158 mGy/min for GCR particles and 3.67 mGy/min for trapped particles. The effective quality factors are 2.48 for GCR particles and 1.19 for trapped particles. The absorbed doses obtained by the RRMD-III and a conventional method using TLD (Mg(2)SiO(4)), which was placed around the RRMD-III were compared. It was found that the TLDs showed a lower efficiency, just 58% of absorbed dose registered by the RRMD-III.     

The BIORACK facility and its performance during the IML-2 Spacelab mission

The configuration and performance of the Biorack facility during the Second International Microgravity Laboratory mission (IML-2; 8-23 July 1995) is described in detail. During this Spacelab mission, Biorack flew with two incubators (22 degrees C and 37 degrees C), glovebox, cooler (5 degrees C) and four passive thermal conditioning units (PTCU; 5 degrees C and 10 degrees C) in the stowage. The crew worked more than 40 h to perform 19 Biorack experiments originating from seven European countries. Almost 200 Biorack experiment containers had to be translocated in about 1500 predetermined steps before the Space Shuttle Columbia returned after nearly 14 days: 18 h or 236 orbits in space to Kennedy Space Center, Florida.     

The response of a spherical tissue-equivalent proportional counter to iron particles from 200-1000 MeV/nucleon

The radiation environment on board the space shuttle and the International Space Station includes high-Z and high-energy (HZE) particles that are part of the galactic cosmic radiation (GCR) spectrum. Iron-56 particles are considered to be one of the most biologically important parts of the GCR spectrum. Tissue-equivalent proportional counters (TEPCs) are used as active dosimeters on manned space flights. These TEPCs are further used to determine the average quality factor for each space mission. A TEPC simulating a 1-microm-diameter sphere of tissue was exposed as part of a particle spectrometer to (56)Fe particles at energies from 200-1000 MeV/nucleon. The response of TEPCs in terms of mean lineal energy, y(F), and dose mean lineal energy, y(D), as well as the energy deposited at different impact parameters through the detector was determined for six different incident energies of (56)Fe particles in this energy range. Calculations determined that charged-particle equilibrium was achieved for each of the six experiments. Energy depositions at different impact parameters were calculated using a radial dose distribution model, and the results were compared to experimental data.     

Heavy ion effects on cellular DNA: strand break induction and repair in cultured diploid lens epithelial cells

The relative biological effectiveness (RBE) for the induction of DNA strand breaks and the efficiency of repair of these breaks in cultured diploid bovine lens epithelial cells was measured, using accelerated heavy ions in the linear energy transfer (LET)-range up to 16,200 keV/micron. At LET values above 800 keV/micron, the number of DNA strand breaks induced per particle increases both with the atomic number of the projectile and with its kinetic energy. About 90 per cent or more of the strand breaks induced by ions with an LET of less than 10,000 keV/micron are repaired within 24 h. Repair kinetics show a dependence on the particle fluence (irradiation dose). At higher particle fluences a higher proportion of non-rejoined breaks is found, even after prolonged periods of incubation. At any LET value, repair is much slower after heavy-ion exposure than after X-irradiation. This is especially true for low energetic particles with a very high local density of energy deposition within the particle track. At the highest LET value (16,200 keV/micron), no significant repair is observed.     

Space radiation enhancement linked to geomagnetic disturbances.

Space radiation dosimetry measurements have been made on board the Space Shuttle. A newly developed active detector called "Real-time Radiation Monitoring Device (RRMD)" was used (Doke et al., 1995; Hayashi et al., 1995). The RRMD results indicate that low Linear Energy Transfer (LET) particles steadily penetrate around the South Atlantic Anomaly (SAA) without clear enhancement of dose equivalent and some daily periodic enhancements of dose equivalent due to high LET particles are seen at the lower geomagnetic cutoff regions (Doke et al., 1996). We also have been analyzing the space weather during the experiment, and found that the anomalous high-energy particle enhancement was linked to geomagnetic disturbance due to the high speed solar wind from a coronal hole. Additional analysis and other experiments are necessary for clarification of these phenomena. If a penetration of high-energy particles into the low altitude occurs by common geomagnetic disturbances, the prediction of geomagnetic activity becomes more important in the next Space Station's era.     

Heavy ion effects on yeast: inhibition of ribosomal RNA synthesis

Diploid wild-type yeast cells were exposed to beams of heavy ions covering a wide range of linear energy transfer (LET) (43-13,700 keV/microns). Synthesis of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) was assessed as a functional measure of damage produced by particle radiation. An exponential decrease of relative rRNA synthesis with particle fluence was demonstrated in all cases. The inactivation cross sections derived were found to increase with LET over the entire range of LET studied. The corresponding values for relative biological effectiveness were slightly less than unity. Maximum cross sections measured were close to 1 micron 2, implying that some larger structure within the yeast nucleus (e.g., the nucleolus) might represent the target for an impairment of synthetic activity by very heavy ions rather than the genes coding for rRNA. Where tested, an oxygen effect for rRNA synthesis could not be demonstrated.     

Problems of component discrimination in space radiation dosimetry

Resolving the LET spectrum of environmental radiation in space for assessing dose equivalents creates special problems due to superposition effects. Three components of the radiation field in space, trapped protons, tissue disintegration stars, and neutrons, contribute the bulk of the total dose equivalent. While lack of discrimination of neutron recoil and trapped primary protons does not interfere with correct determination of the combined dose equivalent as such, the simultaneous bursts of several low-energy protons and alpha particles from tissue disintegration stars completely defy LET-resolution with conventional instrumentation. So far, the tissue star dose has been determined only semiquantitatively from nuclear emulsion data. The neutron spectrum in space shows a markedly higher relative fluence in the region beyond 5 MeV than the fission neutron spectrum. Therefore, its LET spectrum centers less heavily on LET values near the proton Bragg Peak. This would call for assigning a QF value of less than 10 to the neutron dose in space. Still more serious shortcomings exist with regard to LET interpretation of heavy primaries.     

Measurement and validation of benchmark-quality thick-target tungsten X-ray spectra below 150 kVp

Pulse-height distributions of two constant potential X-ray tubes with fixed anode tungsten targets were measured and unfolded. The measurements employed quantitative alignment of the beam, the use of two different semiconductor detectors (high-purity germanium and cadmium-zinc-telluride), two different ion chamber systems with beam-specific calibration factors, and various filter and tube potential combinations. Monte Carlo response matrices were generated for each detector for unfolding the pulse-height distributions into spectra incident on the detectors. These response matrices were validated for the low error bars assigned to the data. A significant aspect of the validation of spectra, and a detailed characterization of the X-ray tubes, involved measuring filtered and unfiltered beams at multiple tube potentials (30-150 kVp). Full corrections to ion chamber readings were employed to convert normalized fluence spectra into absolute fluence spectra. The characterization of fixed anode pitting and its dominance over exit window plating and/or detector dead layer was determined. An Appendix of tabulated benchmark spectra with assigned error ranges was developed for future reference.     

Space radiation absorbed dose distribution in a human phantom.

The radiation risk to astronauts has always been based on measurements using passive thermoluminescent dosimeters (TLDs). The skin dose is converted to dose equivalent using an average radiation quality factor based on model calculations. The radiological risk estimates, however, are based on organ and tissue doses. This paper describes results from the first space flight (STS-91, 51.65 degrees inclination and approximately 380 km altitude) of a fully instrumented Alderson Rando phantom torso (with head) to relate the skin dose to organ doses. Spatial distributions of absorbed dose in 34 1-inch-thick sections measured using TLDs are described. There is about a 30% change in dose as one moves from the front to the back of the phantom body. Small active dosimeters were developed specifically to provide time-resolved measurements of absorbed dose rates and quality factors at five organ locations (brain, thyroid, heart/lung, stomach and colon) inside the phantom. Using these dosimeters, it was possible to separate the trapped-proton and the galactic cosmic radiation components of the doses. A tissue-equivalent proportional counter (TEPC) and a charged-particle directional spectrometer (CPDS) were flown next to the phantom torso to provide data on the incident internal radiation environment. Accurate models of the shielding distributions at the site of the TEPC, the CPDS and a scalable Computerized Anatomical Male (CAM) model of the phantom torso were developed. These measurements provided a comprehensive data set to map the dose distribution inside a human phantom, and to assess the accuracy and validity of radiation transport models throughout the human body. The results show that for the conditions in the International Space Station (ISS) orbit during periods near the solar minimum, the ratio of the blood-forming organ dose rate to the skin absorbed dose rate is about 80%, and the ratio of the dose equivalents is almost one. The results show that the GCR model dose-rate predictions are 20% lower than the observations. Assuming that the trapped-belt models lead to a correct orbit-averaged energy spectrum, the measurements of dose rates inside the phantom cannot be fully understood. Passive measurements using 6Li- and 7Li-based detectors on the astronauts and inside the brain and thyroid of the phantom show the presence of a significant contribution due to thermal neutrons, an area requiring additional study.     

An assessment of a 3D EPID-based dosimetry system using conventional two- and three-dimensional detectors for VMAT

PurposeTo provide a 3D dosimetric evaluation of a commercial portal dosimetry system using 2D/3D detectors under ideal conditions using VMAT.MethodsA 2D ion chamber array, radiochromic film and gel dosimeter were utilised to provide a dosimetric evaluation of transit phantom and pre-treatment ‘fluence’ EPID back-projected dose distributions for a standard VMAT plan. In-house 2D and 3D gamma methods compared pass statistics relative to each dosimeter and TPS dose distributions.ResultsFluence mode and transit EPID dose distributions back-projected onto phantom geometry produced 2D gamma pass rates in excess of 97% relative to other tested detectors and exported TPS dose planes when a 3%, 3 mm global gamma criterion was applied. Use of a gel dosimeter within a glass vial allowed comparison of measured 3D dose distributions versus EPID 3D dose and TPS calculated distributions. 3D gamma comparisons between modalities at 3%, 3 mm gave pass rates in excess of 92%. Use of fluence mode was indicative of transit results under ideal conditions with slightly reduced dose definition.Conclusions3D EPID back projected dose distributions were validated against detectors in both 2D and 3D. Cross validation of transit dose delivered to a patient is limited due to reasons of practicality and the tests presented are recommended as a guideline for 3D EPID dosimetry commissioning; allowing direct comparison between detector, TPS, fluence and transit modes. The results indicate achievable gamma scores for a complex VMAT plan in a homogenous phantom geometry and contributes to growing experience of 3D EPID dosimetry.     

The RBE-LET relationship for rodent intestinal crypt cell survival, testes weight loss, and multicellular spheroid cell survival after heavy-ion irradiation.

This report presents data for survival of mouse intestinal crypt cells, mouse testes weight loss as an indicator of survival of spermatogonial stem cells, and survival of rat 9L spheroid cells after irradiation in the plateau region of unmodified particle beams ranging in mass from 4He to 139La. The LET values range from 1.6 to 953 keV/microns. These studies examine the RBE-LET relationship for two normal tissues and for an in vitro tissue model, multicellular spheroids. When the RBE values are plotted as a function of LET, the resulting curve is characterized by a region in which RBE increases with LET, a peak RBE at an LET value of 100 keV/microns, and a region of decreasing RBE at LETs greater than 100 keV/microns. Inactivation cross sections (sigma) for these three biological systems have been calculated from the exponential terminal slope of the dose-response relationship for each ion. For this determination the dose is expressed as particle fluence and the parameter sigma indicates effect per particle. A plot of sigma versus LET shows that the curve for testes weight loss is shifted to the left, indicating greater radiosensitivity at lower LETs than for crypt cell and spheroid cell survival. The curves for cross section versus LET for all three model systems show similar characteristics with a relatively linear portion below 100 keV/microns and a region of lessened slope in the LET range above 100 keV/microns for testes and spheroids. The data indicate that the effectiveness per particle increases as a function of LET and, to a limited extent, Z, at LET values greater than 100 keV/microns. Previously published results for spread Bragg peaks are also summarized, and they suggest that RBE is dependent on both the LET and the Z of the particle.     

Derivation of radiation quality average parameters in neutron-gamma radiation fields with the high-pressure ionization chamber: theory and practice

The established radiation quality parameters in mixed neutron-gamma radiation fields may be measured by applying the initial (columnar) recombination of ions in tissue-equivalent (TE) high-pressure ionization chambers (recombination chambers). The mean quality factor can be determined to within 10-15% for mixed fields with neutrons ranging from thermal to 10 MeV, and the dose mean LET of the proton component can be determined to within 10-15% if the gamma-ray absorbed dose fraction is known. These average parameters are derived by measuring the ratio of the ionization currents collected at two high-field strengths and constant gas pressure applied to the ionization chamber. By utilizing approximate correlations between physical parameters in the neutron energy region from thermal to 10 MeV, the dose mean LET of the heavy ion component, the overall dose mean LET, and the microdosimetric parameter y0,D of the mixed field can also be derived. Experimental verification of the method is presented for various neutron-gamma radiation spectra in air and in water by comparison to theoretical calculations and results from low-pressure proportional counter measurements. Good agreement is shown. The TE high-pressure ionization chamber appears to have wide potential for use as a dose-equivalent meter in radiation protection or as a beam characterization device in radiobiology.