Involvement of apoptosis in malathion-induced cytotoxicity in a grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idellus) cell line

We investigated the role of apoptosis in malathion-induced cytotoxicity in the grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idellus) cell line ZC-7901. Fish cells were treated with different concentrations of malathion (0.62-95 mg/L), and the IC(50) ranged from 37.94+/-1.93 mg/L for 12 h to 3.04+/-0.27 mg/L for 72 h by the MTT assay. Apoptosis was detected by confocal laser scanning microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, TUNEL reaction, DNA laddering and a flow cytometric PI staining assay. The results demonstrated that apoptosis was involved in the cytotoxic effect of malathion, and that malathion-induced apoptosis occurred in a dose- and time-dependent manner. In addition, the induction of apoptosis by malathion was accompanied by mitochondrial membrane potential (DeltaPsi(m)) disruption, intracellular Ca(2+) elevation, generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and ATP depletion. Our investigation suggested that malathion exerts its cytotoxic effects by the induction of apoptosis via a direct effect on the mitochondria.     

An in vivo study of common carp (Cyprinus carpio L.) liver during prolonged hypoxia

Hypoxia induced apoptosis has been studied extensively in many mammalian cell lines but there are only a few studies using whole animal models. We investigated the response of the intact liver to hypoxia in a hypoxia tolerant fish, the carp (Cyprinus carpio, L). We exposed carp to hypoxia for up to 42 days, using oxygen level (0.5 mgO₂/L) that were slightly higher than the critical oxygen level of carp. There was extensive DNA damage in liver cells, especially during the first week of exposure, indicated by a massive TUNEL signal. However there was no change in cell proliferation, cell number or size, no increase in caspase-3 activity, no increase in single stranded DNA and this, combined with a number of other observations, led us to conclude there was no increase in apoptosis in the liver during hypoxia. There was up-regulation of some anti-apoptotic genes and proteins (Bcl-2, HSP70, p27) and down-regulation of some pro-apoptotic genes (Tetraspanin 5 and Cell death activator). The cells appeared to enter cell cycle arrest, presumably to allow repair of damaged DNA. As there was no change in cell proliferation and cell number, the damaged cells were not entering apoptosis and must have recovered during prolonged hypoxia.     

The primary culture of mirror carp snout and caudal fin tissues and the isolation of Koi herpesvirus

The explosive Koi herpesvirus (KHV) epidemic has caused the deaths of a large number of carp and carp variants and has produced serious economic losses. The mirror carp (Cyprinus carpio var. specularis) exhibits strong environmental adaptability and its primary cells can be used to isolate KHV. This study utilized the tissue explant method to systematically investigate primary cell culture conditions for mirror carp snout and caudal fin tissues. We demonstrated that cells from these two tissue types had strong adaptability, and when cultured in Medium 199 (M199) containing 20% serum at 26 to 30°C, the cells from the snout and caudal fin tissues exhibited the fastest egress and proliferation. Inoculation of these two cell types with KHV-infected fish kidney tissues produced typical cytopathic effects; additionally, identification by electron microscopy, and PCR indicated that KHV could be isolated from both cell types.     

Fine structure of the carp torus longitudinalis

Fine structure of the carp torus longitudinalis was studied by electron and light microscopy and compared with the granular layer of the carp cerebellum. There are three types of cells in the torus longitudinalis, that is, small, medium-sized and large cells. From the small cells to the medium-sized cells, there is gradual transition in size and in the amounts of cell organelles. These cell profiles and the closely packed cell pattern in a part of the torus longitudinalis are quite similar to those in the granular layer of the cerebellum. Moreover, peculiar synaptic configurations of so-called “synaptic glomeruli” are found both in the torus longitudinalis and in the granular layer of the cerebellum. In the torus longitudinalis, unmyelinated nerve fibers are seen to have bulbous swellings along their course, most of which contain a mitochondrion, as do they in the carp tectum opticum. It is speculated that the torus longitudinalis may be partly related to the granular layer of the cerebellum and partly to the tectum opticum.     

离体培养细胞系冷休克敏感差异性的研究

应用台盼蓝活体染色方法、Hoechst332 5 8荧光探针技术研究低温冷休克 (4℃ )对人肝癌细胞系 (74 0 2 )、秋行军虫细胞系 (Sf9)、幼蚊细胞系 (C6 36 )及草鱼肾细胞系 (CIK)的影响。结果显示 :在冷休克处理 6天后 ,Sf9、C6 36、CIK、74 0 2细胞系的死亡率分别是 2 0 .0 3%、10 0 %、2 8.6 9%、10 0 % ;凋亡率分别为 2 .4 5 %、38.38%、8.2 5 %、96 .4 7% ,其细胞的死亡率远远大于凋亡率。可见冷休克导致细胞死亡过程中 ,应是细胞坏死和凋亡并存。但就其细胞凋亡的敏感性而言 ,4种细胞顺序应为 74 0 2 >C6 36 >CIK >Sf9。研究结果为在细胞水平、分子水平深入研究低体温生物离体细胞冷休克机理奠定基础。     

Effects of three-dimensional culturing on osteosarcoma cells grown in a fibrous matrix: analyses of cell morphology, cell cycle, and apoptosis

Osteosarcoma cells were cultured in stirred tank bioreactors with either a fibrous matrix or nonporous microcarriers to study the environmental effects on cell growth, morphology, cell cycle, and apoptosis. Cell cycle and apoptosis were analyzed using flow cytometry and visualized using confocal laser scanning microscopy and fluorescence microscopy. The three-dimensional (3-D) fibrous culture had better cell growth and higher metabolic rates than the two-dimensional (2-D) microcarrier culture because cells in the fibrous matrix were protected from shear stress and had lower apoptosis and cell death even under suboptimal conditions (e.g., nutrient depletion). The polyester fibrous matrix used in this study also exhibited the capability of selectively retaining viable and nonapoptotic cells and disposing apoptotic and nonviable cells. Consequently, very few apoptotic cells were found in the fibrous matrix even in the long-term (1 month) T-flask culture. In the continuous culture with packed fibrous matrixes for cell support, most cells were arrested in the G1/G0 phase after 4 days. Decreasing the dissolved oxygen level from 60 to 10% air saturation did not significantly change cell cycle and apoptosis, which remained low at approximately 15%. These results could explain why the fibrous bed bioreactor had good long-term stability and was advantageous for production of non-growth-associated proteins by animal cell cultures.     

Induction of CD4+ T cell apoptosis as a consequence of impaired cytoskeletal rearrangement in UVB-irradiated dendritic cells

Low dose UVB irradiation of dendritic cells (DC) dose-dependently decreases their allostimulatory capacity and inhibits alloreactive T cell proliferation. The reduction of the stimulatory capacity is not associated with a perturbation of CD28 costimulation. To examine the underlying mechanism, cell cycle analysis of T cells from cocultures with UVB-irradiated DC (UVB-DC) was performed, revealing no cell cycle arrest, but an increased number of apoptotic T cells in sub-G(0) phase. We confirmed T cells to undergo apoptosis after coincubation with UVB-DC by TUNEL staining and DNA laddering. To analyze whether T cell apoptosis requires the Fas/Fas ligand (FasL) pathway, MLRs were performed with Fas-, FasL-deficient, and wild-type DC and T cells. No differences were found on comparison of wild-type DC with Fas-/FasL-deficient DC or T cells. Likewise, addition of a neutralizing anti-TNF-alpha mAb to cocultures could not overcome inhibition of T cell proliferation by UVB-DC, excluding involvement of the TNF-alpha/TNF-alphaR pathway. FACS analysis of CD69 and CD25 revealed no up-regulation on T cells cocultured with UVB-DC, suggesting a perturbation of early T cell activation. Analysis of UVB-DC by confocal microscopy demonstrated impaired filamentous actin bundling, a process critical for T cell stimulation. To investigate the functional relevance of these observations, time lapse video microscopy was performed. Indeed, calcium signaling in CD4(+) T cells was significantly diminished after interaction with UVB-DC. In conclusion, UVBR of DC impairs their cytoskeletal rearrangement and induces apoptosis in CD4(+) T cells by disruption of early DC-T cell interaction, resulting in a reduced Ca(2+) influx in T cells.     

几种鱼类细胞对草鱼呼肠孤病毒敏感性的研究

比较研究了鲫鱼异倍体细胞系(CAB-80)、团头鲂尾鳍细胞系(BCC)、大鳞副泥鳅雌核发育单倍体胚胎细胞系(PHG)、草鱼胚胎细胞系(GCE)、草鱼尾鳍细胞系(GCRF-2)、草鱼肾细胞系(GCK-84)及其四个克隆对草鱼呼肠孤病毒(GCRV)的敏感性。证实了这些细胞(PHG除外)在不同程度上对GCRV敏感,其中以GCK-84的敏感性最强。这表明,在体外培养条件下,GCRV并无严格的种族特异性。用经GCK-84传代的病毒感染草鱼种,能复制出典型的出血病症状。用GCK-84检测了病毒在GCK-84、GCRF-2、CAB-80、BCC和PHG中的滴度(TCID_(50/ml)),其值分别为8.24,7.36,2.90,2.15和1.33。4个克隆与肾细胞系对病毒的敏感程度亦不尽相同,其滴度在6.3到9.32之间变化。上述结果对细胞工程抗病育种预示有较大的潜在意义。在电镜下可见GCRV对被感染的细胞造成了严重的破坏。病毒为平均直径58nm的球形颗粒,具有一个高度电子密度的核心,平均直径约为38nm。病毒在细胞中的分布方式有三种:即散布于细胞质中的、呈晶格状包于一膜状结构中的和整齐或不整齐地聚集在一起但无膜包裹的。     

3-Dimensional microscopy as a method for volume measurement in cells undergoing apoptosis

Different patterns of cell volume perturbations are commonly used for modes of cell death: necrosis (cell swelling) and apoptosis (cell shrinkage). In this study we employed recently developed three dimensional microscopy for the measurement of the volume of attached vascular smooth muscle cells transfected with E1A-adenoviral protein. These cells undergo rapid apoptosis in the absence of growth factors or in the presence of staurosporine. In 30–60 min of serum deprivation the volume of these cells is increased by ～40% that corresponds to the time point of maximal activation of caspase 3 and chromatin cleavage. In 10–15 min swollen cells exhibit morphological collapse indicated by formation of apoptotic bodies. In contrast to serum-deprived cells, staurosporine leads to attenuation of cell volume by 30%. In this case, apoptotic bodies are detected in ～2.5 h after maximal shrinkage. Thus, our results show that cell shrinkage can not be considered as universal hallmark of apoptosis. The role of stimulus-specific cell volume perturbation in the triggering of the cell death machinery should be examined further.     

HIF-1α and iNOS levels in crucian carp gills during hypoxia-induced transformation

Hypoxia inducible factor 1 alpha (HIF-1α) initiates expression of a wide variety of genes, some of which are involved in apoptosis and cell cycle arrest. We have previously shown that crucian carp increases its respiratory surface area 7.5-fold in response to hypoxia. This change is due to apoptosis and cell cycle arrest in specific parts of its gills. Here we have characterized crucian carp HIF-1α, and measured mRNA, protein and DNA binding levels during hypoxia exposure in crucian carp gills. We have also measured an HIF-1α-induced gene, the inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), which has the ability to initiate apoptosis and cell cycle arrest. Crucian carp HIF-1α was found to have all critical domains known to be important for function. Comparison of the peptide sequence with other species indicated high similarity with other cyprinid fish, but a pronounced variation compared to the salmonid, rainbow trout. Further, we found HIF-1α protein to be stabilized during hypoxia. Further, HIF-1α was often present in normoxia, and showed marked individual weight-dependent variation. We found no alteration of iNOS mRNA levels during hypoxia exposure. These findings suggest HIF-1α involvement in hypoxia-induced change of respiratory surface area in crucian carp gills. However, its activity does not seem to be mediated through iNOS.     

Singapore grouper iridovirus,a large DNA virus,induces nonapoptotic cell death by a cell type dependent fashion and evokes ERK signaling

Virus induced cell death, including apoptosis and nonapoptotic cell death, plays a critical role in the pathogenesis of viral diseases. Singapore grouper iridovirus (SGIV), a novel iridovirus of genus Ranavirus, causes high mortality and heavy economic losses in grouper aquaculture. Here, using fluorescence microscopy, electron microscopy and biochemical assays, we found that SGIV infection in host (grouper spleen, EAGS) cells evoked nonapoptotic programmed cell death (PCD), characterized by appearance of cytoplasmic vacuoles and distended endoplasmic reticulum, in the absence of DNA fragmentation, apoptotic bodies and caspase activation. In contrast, SGIV induced typical apoptosis in non-host (fathead minnow, FHM) cells, as evidenced by caspase activation and DNA fragmentation, suggesting that SGIV infection induced nonapoptotic cell death by a cell type dependent fashion. Furthermore, viral replication was essential for SGIV induced nonapoptotic cell death, but not for apoptosis. Notably, the disruption of mitochondrial transmembrane potential (ΔΨm) and externalization of phosphatidylserine (PS) were not detected in EAGS cells but in FHM cells after SGIV infection. Moreover, the extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) signaling was involved in SGIV infection induced nonapoptotic cell death and viral replication. This is a first demonstration of ERK-mediated nonapoptotic cell death induced by a DNA virus. These findings contribute to understanding the mechanisms of iridovirus pathogenesis.     

Identification of a new granulocyte type in the skin of carp Cyprinus carpio (L.)

The skin of carp Cyprinus carpio (L.) was investigated by electron microscopy. A new granulocyte cell type was identified, and is described as being similar to the eosinophilic granular cell (EGC) of salmonids.     

Evidence That the Mechanism of Prenatal Germ Cell Death in the Mouse Is Apoptosis

Using fluorescence-activated cell sorting combined with fluorescence microscopy the mechanism of embryonic germ cell death in the mouse has been shown to be apoptosis. Primordial germ cells (PGCs) from embryos at specific developmental stages have been analyzed, and cells with apoptotic morphology have been isolated by cell sorting. In the female, apoptotic oogonia at Day 13 and apoptotic oocytes at Days 15 and 17 were found. In the male, apoptotic cells were seen on Day 13 through Day 17. Apoptotic germ cells were not detected at Day 12 (combined male and female PGCs). Examination of sorted cells by fluorescence microscopy and by light microscopic analysis after alkaline phosphatase staining confirmed that the cells are apoptotic germ cells. Electron microscopy further confirmed that cells showing the morphological characteristics of apoptosis are present.     

Anti-IgM antibody-induced cell death in a human B lymphoma cell line, B104, represents a novel programmed cell death.

We investigated the mechanisms of anti-IgM antibody-induced cell death in a recently established human surface IgM+ IgD+ B lymphoma cell line, B104, the growth of which is irreversibly inhibited by anti-IgM antibody but not by anti-IgD antibody, and compared it with the cell death of T cells via TCR/CD3 complex and with the cell death of a murine anti-IgM antibody-sensitive B lymphoma cell line, WEHI-231. The rapid time course of B104 cell death and its requirements for de novo macromolecular synthesis and Ca2+ influx suggest that anti-IgM antibody-induced B104 cell death is an active Ca(2+)-dependent programmed cell death. Moreover, cyclosporin A rescued B104 cells from this lethal signal, via surface IgM, suggesting that the intracellular mechanisms involved are quite similar to those of T cell death. DNA fragmentation, which has been reported in TCR/CD3 complex-mediated T cell death, apoptosis, was not involved in the B104 cell death process, but the possible involvement of DNA single-strand breaks was suggested. Observations under light microscopy and transmission electron microscopy indicated that the morphologic features of dying B104 cells resembled necrosis rather than apoptosis. B104 cell death was shown to be quite distinct from that of WEHI-231 in cell death kinetics, the mode of cell death, and the response to cyclosporin A. These data collectively indicate that the death of B104 cells resulting from surface IgM cross-linking represents a hitherto undefined mode of programmed cell death.     

基于肝癌细胞线粒体功能受损和caspase-3信号通路探讨罗哌卡因促进肝癌细胞凋亡的作用机制研究

摘要 目的：基于肝癌细胞线粒体功能受损和天冬氨酸蛋白水解酶3（caspase-3）信号通路探讨罗哌卡因促进肝癌细胞凋亡的作用机制。方法：选用细胞株人肝癌细胞BEL-7402进行实验研究。用不同浓度罗哌卡因处理BEL-7402细胞后,采用溴化噻唑蓝四氮唑（MTT）法检测肝癌细胞的增殖情况,光镜及4,6-二苯胺-2-苯吲哚二盐酸盐（DAPI）溶液染色观察细胞形态,台盼蓝染色法测定细胞活力,流式细胞术分析BEL-7402细胞的凋亡情况,电子显微镜下观察细胞线粒体,激光共聚焦显微镜观察caspase-3在BEL-7402细胞中的细胞核迁移情况,蛋白免疫印迹试验评价罗哌卡因对细胞质凋亡相关蛋白、线粒体凋亡相关蛋白、BEL-7402细胞和线粒体凋亡相关蛋白表达的影响。结果：罗哌卡因能够抑制肝癌细胞的生长,并呈剂量依赖性和时间依赖性。罗哌卡因可诱导BEL-7402细胞发生凋亡,显著增加BEL-7402细胞的凋亡率。罗哌卡因能够损伤肝癌细胞线粒体功能。激光共聚焦显微镜观察显示caspase-3分子迁移到细胞核。罗哌卡因与caspase-3相互作用,促进caspase-3向细胞核内迁移,刺激caspase-3和聚腺苷二磷酸核糖聚合酶（PARP-1）、天冬氨酸蛋白水解酶9（caspase-9）蛋白的表达,抑制B细胞淋巴瘤-2基因（Bcl-2）的表达,促进凋亡酶激活因子（Apaf-1）的表达,促进线粒体释放细胞色素C（Cytochrome C）,激活caspase-3活性。结论：罗哌卡因具有促进肝癌细胞凋亡的作用,其作用机制可能与破坏肝癌细胞线粒体功能和激活caspase-3信号通路有关。     

Bovine lactoferricin causes apoptosis in Jurkat T-leukemia cells by sequential permeabilization of the cell membrane and targeting of mitochondria

Bovine lactoferricin (LfcinB) is a cationic antimicrobial peptide that kills Jurkat T-leukemia cells by the mitochondrial pathway of apoptosis. However, the process by which LfcinB triggers mitochondria-dependent apoptosis is not well understood. Here, we show that LfcinB-induced apoptosis in Jurkat T-leukemia cells was preceded by LfcinB binding to, and progressive permeabilization of the cell membrane. Colloidal gold electron microscopy revealed that LfcinB entered the cytoplasm of Jurkat T-leukemia cells prior to the onset of mitochondrial depolarization. LfcinB was not internalized by endocytosis because endocytosis inhibitors did not prevent LfcinB-induced cytotoxicity. Furthermore, intracellular delivery of LfcinB via fusogenic liposomes caused the death of Jurkat T-leukemia cells, as well as normal human fibroblasts. Collectively, these findings suggest that LfcinB caused damage to the cell membrane that allowed LfcinB to enter the cytoplasm of Jurkat T-leukemia cells and mediate cytotoxicity. In addition, confocal microscopy showed that intracellular LfcinB co-localized with mitochondria in Jurkat T-leukemia cells, while flow cytometry and colloidal gold electron microscopy showed that LfcinB rapidly associated with purified mitochondria. Furthermore, purified mitochondria treated with LfcinB rapidly lost transmembrane potential and released cytochrome c. We conclude that LfcinB-induced apoptosis in Jurkat T-leukemia cells resulted from cell membrane damage and the subsequent disruption of mitochondrial membranes by internalized LfcinB.     

Comparing programmed cell death in cultured primary and tumor cells in inquiry-based cell biology laboratory exercises

ABSTRACT

Programmed cell death, or apoptosis, is a cellular pathway by which individual cells self-destruct for the benefit of the organism. In this practical paper, we describe laboratory exercises with an inquiry-based learning (IBL) approach in which undergraduate students compared apoptosis among different types of cultured cells. Ultraviolet (UV) radiation was used to induce apoptosis in mouse primary cells and in Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) tumor cells. Students hypothesized that, because tumor cells evade apoptosis, CHO cells would exhibit less apoptosis compared to primary cells. Treated and control cells were labeled for two hallmarks of apoptosis, fragmented DNA and active caspase-3 enzyme, and all nuclei were visualized with DAPI. Cell counts were conducted using fluorescence microscopy. Exposure to UV light induced apoptosis in both cell types compared to controls, but no significant difference in the proportions of labeled cells was observed between UV-treated primary and CHO cells. Optimal parameters for UV exposure and labeling techniques are presented. This exercise provides instructors with methodology for allowing students to use a basic cell culture system and microscopy to formulate a hypothesis and design experiments related to apoptosis. Students incorporated their work into a research paper, which served as the main mode of assessment.     

Spontaneous germ cell death by apoptosis in epididymis of the adult bat Artibeus lituratus.

Many factors can lead cells to apoptosis during the various stages of cell life. This study was undertaken to characterize germ cell death in the epididymis of the adult Artibeus lituratus by histochemical and immunohistochemical techniques using light microscopy and transmission electron microscopy. The results showed that cells with a nuclear phenotype and ultrastructural characteristics of chromatin compaction were common in apoptosis. The Apoptag test confirmed that the suspected cells were apoptotic. It is suggested that immature germ cells, when released from the germinative epithelium, may be directed towards the epididymis instead of being disposed of in the testicle. Furthermore, intact immature cells can leave the testicle in the initial phases of apoptosis and complete this phenomenon in the epididymis.     

TMEM166, a novel transmembrane protein,regulates cell autophagy and apoptosis

Programmed cell death can be divided into apoptosis and autophagic cell death. We describe the biological activities of TMEM166 (transmembrane protein 166, also known as FLJ13391), which is a novel lysosome and endoplasmic reticulum-associated membrane protein containing a putative TM domain. Overexpression of TMEM166 markedly inhibited colony formation in HeLa cells. Simultaneously, typical morphological characteristics consistent with autophagy were observed by transmission electron microscopy, including extensive autophagic vacuolization and enclosure of cell organelles by double-membrane structures. Further experiments confirmed that the overexpression of TMEM166 increased the punctate distribution of MDC staining and GFP-LC3 in HeLa cells, as well as the LC3-II/LC3-I proportion. On the other hand, TMEM166-transfected HeLa and 293T cells succumbed to cell death with hallmarks of apoptosis including phosphatidylserine externalization, loss of mitochondrial transmembrane potential, caspase activation and chromatin condensation. Kinetic analysis revealed that the appearance of autophagy-related biochemical parameters preceded the nuclear changes typical of apoptosis in TMEM166-transfected HeLa cells. Suppression of TMEM166 expression by small interference RNA inhibited starvation-induced autophagy in HeLa cells. These findings show for the first time that TMEM166 is a novel regulator involved in both autophagy and apoptosis.